1. Introduction to the Qualitative Research Process
Chapter 3
Introduction to the Qualitative Research Process

2. Qualitative Research
A systematic, subjective approach used to describe life experiences and give them meaning
Useful in understanding human experiences such as pain, caring, powerlessness, and comfort
Focuses on understanding the whole
Consistent with holistic philosophy of nursing

3. Frameworks for Qualitative Studies
The goal of qualitative research is not hypothesis testing.
Frameworks are used in a different sense in qualitative research.
Each type of qualitative research is guided by a particular philosophical stance.

4. Data from Qualitative Studies
Are subjective
Incorporate perceptions and beliefs of researcher and participants

5. Four Approaches to Qualitative Research
Phenomenological: Describes and captures the “lived experience” of study participants
Grounded theory: Explores how people define reality and how their beliefs are related to actions
Ethnographic: Seeks to understand people (ways of living, believing, adapting, etc.)
Historical research: Searches throughout history for generalities

6. Methods Similar in Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Select topic.
State problem or question.
Justify significance of study.
Design study.
Identify and gain access to data sources.
Select study subjects.

7. Methods Unique to Qualitative Research
Selection of subjects
Researcher-participant relationship
Data collection methods
Data management
Data analysis
Interpretation

8. Selection of Subjects (Participants)
Subjects are referred to as participants.
May volunteer to be involved in study
May be selected by researcher because of their particular knowledge, experience, or views related to study

9. Purposive Sampling Methods
May select individuals typical in relation to the phenomenon under study
May seek out individuals different in some way from other participants to get diverse perspectives
Snowballing technique is commonly used.

10. Sample Size
Decisions regarding sample size differ from quantitative studies.
Based on needs related to study purpose
Number of subjects is usually smaller
Case studies with only one subject may be used
Six to 10 subjects not unusual

11. Characteristics of Researcher-Participant Relationships
Participants are treated as colleagues rather than subjects.
The researcher must have the support and confidence of participants to the complete study.
Maintaining relationships is of utmost importance.

12. Data Collection Methods: Observation
What is going on here?
Look and listen carefully.
Note routine activities.
Focus on details.
Note processes as well as discrete events.
Note unexpected events.

13. Data Collection Methods: Interviews
Open-ended format
Researcher defines focus.
No fixed sequence of questions
Questions tend to change as researcher gains insights from previous interviews and/or observations.
Respondents are encouraged to raise issues not addressed by researcher.

14. Data Collection Methods: Text
May be written by participants on a particular topic at request of researcher
Narratives may be solicited by mail rather than in person.
Text developed for other purposes, such as patient records or procedure manuals, can be accessed for qualitative analysis.
Published text (books, newspapers, etc.)

15. Data Management Characteristics
Qualitative data analysis occurs concurrently with data collection rather than sequentially, as in quantitative research.
The researcher is simultaneously gathering data, managing a growing bulk of collected data, and interpreting the meaning of data.

16. Goals of Description Become familiar with data.
Read and reread notes and transcripts.
Recall observations and experiences.
Listen to audiotapes.
View videotapes.
Become immersed in data.

17. Types of Descriptive Analysis
Reflexive thought
Bracketing
Data reduction
Coding

18. Reflexive Thought
Researcher explores personal feelings and experiences that may influence study and integrates this understanding into study.
Requires conscious awareness of self

19. Bracketing
Used in some phenomenological research to help researcher avoid misinterpreting phenomenon as it is being experienced by participants
Bracketing is suspending or laying aside what researcher knows about experience being studied.

20. Data Reduction
Analysis focuses on reducing large volume of acquired data to facilitate examination.
Researcher begins to attach meaning to elements of data.
Researcher discovers classes of things, persons, events, and properties.

21. Coding Way of indexing or identifying categories in data
Codes may be placed in data at time of data collection, when entering data into computer, and during later examination of data.
Data segments can then be retrieved by coding category.

22. Data Displays
Are equivalent to summary tables used in quantitative studies
Allow researcher to convey succinctly main ideas of study
Codes used to organize the display

23. Types of Data Analysis
Coding
Memos
Storytelling
Narrative analysis

24. Coding
Coding, used earlier for description, also can be used to expand, transform, and reconceptualize data, providing opportunities for more diverse analyses.

25. Memos
Used to record insights or ideas related to notes, transcripts, or codes
Moves researcher toward theorizing and is conceptual rather than factual
May link data or use specific piece of data as an example of conceptual idea

26. Storytelling
Can be instructive in understanding a phenomenon of interest
Includes a sequence of events with a beginning, middle, and an end
Stories have their own logic and are temporal.

27. Narrative Analysis A qualitative means of formally analyzing stories
Researcher unpacks story structure.
Can be used to determine how people tell stories
How they shape the events
How they make a point
How they “package” events and react to them
How they communicate their stories to audiences

28. Interpretation of Qualitative Results
The researcher offers his or her interpretation of what is going on.
The focus is on understanding and explaining beyond that which can be stated with certainty.
May focus on usefulness of findings for clinical practice.
Researcher develops hunches about relationships that can be used to formulate tentative propositions.

29. Rigor in Qualitative Research
Rigor needs to be defined differently in qualitative research because desired outcome is different.
Evaluation of rigor is based, in part, on logic of emerging theory and clarity with which it sheds light on phenomenon studied.

30. Characteristics of Rigor
Openness
Scrupulous adherence to a philosophical perspective
Thoroughness in collecting data
Consideration of all data in subjective theory development phase

31. Causes for Lack of Rigor
Inconsistency in adhering to philosophy of approach being used
Failure to get away from older ideas
Poorly developed methods
Insufficient time spent collecting data
Poor observations
Failure to give careful consideration to all data

32. Description of Decision Trails
Strategies by which other researchers, using the same data, can follow logic of original researcher and arrive at same conclusions
Requires researcher to establish rules for categorizing data, arriving at ratings, or making judgments

33. Requirements for Decision Trails
A record is kept of all decision rules used in data analysis to support the study’s conclusions and emerging theory.
All raw data are stored and available for review, if requested.

34. Opposition to Decision Trails
Some qualitative researchers are concerned that data analysis would become too mechanistic.
Some qualitative researchers are opposed to the expectation that other researchers will reach the same conclusions when each researcher’s work is unique.