1. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 9 Psychological Development This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images Any rental, lease or lending of the program. ISBN: 0-131-73180-7

2. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Developmental Psychology Developmental psychology – The study of how organisms change over time as the result of biological and environmental influences

3. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Do Psychologists Explain Development? Development is a process of growth and change brought about by an interaction of heredity and the environment

4. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Nature-Nurture Interaction Nature-nurture issue – Long-standing discussion over relative importance of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) in their influence on behavior and mental processes

5. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Nature-Nurture Interaction Twin studies – Developmental investigations in which twins, especially identical twins, are compared in the search for genetic and environmental effects

6. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Nature-Nurture Interaction Identical twins– A pair who started life as a single fertilized egg which later split into two distinct individuals Fraternal twins– A pair who started life as two separate fertilized eggs that happened to share the same womb

7. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Nature-Nurture Interaction Adoption studies – Studies in which the adopted child’s characteristics are compared to those of the biological family and the adoptive family

8. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Gradual versus Abrupt Change Continuity view vs. Discontinuity view Age Performance Continuity view Discontinuity view

9. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Gradual versus Abrupt Change Developmental stages – Periods of life initiated by significant transitions or changes in physical or psychological functioning

10. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Psychological Traits in Your Genes While psychological traits are formed by interaction of heredity and the environment, many traits have a strong genetic influence

11. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What Capabilities Does the Child Possess? Newborns have innate abilities for finding nourishment, interacting with others, and avoiding harmful situations; the developing abilities of infants and children rely on learning

12. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Prenatal Development Prenatal period – The developmental period before birth Zygote Embryo Fetus Placenta – An organ that develops between the embryo/fetus and the mother Teratogens – Toxic substances that can damage the developing organism

13. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Development begins before an infant is born. 8 weeks: brain waves can be detected and measured fetus moves around and appears to swim in the sac

14. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 12 weeks: vocal cords are developed child can and does cry ( silent) child can feel pain brain is fully formed can suck their thumb

15. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 14 Weeks: moving and kicking occur and can be felt by the mother mother can feel hiccuping

16. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 16 Weeks: fetus can grab with their hands fetus can do somersaults 20 Weeks: - Can hear and recognize the mother’s voice

17. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 32 Weeks: Child sleeps 90-95% of the time REM sleep occurs and there is an indication of dreaming

18. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Reflexes of the Neonate

19. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Reflexes Certain inherited automatic movement patterns that a newborn is capable of A newborn has over 70 reflexes, several which signal how their nervous system is working Two Types of Reflexes: Survival Reflexes Primitive Reflexes

20. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Survival Reflexes Breathing: Infants reflexively inhale to obtain oxygen and exhale to expel carbon dioxide. Breathing is a permanent reflex that does not require conscious effort although after a few months of life we can voluntarily control our breathing to a point.

21. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Survival Reflexes Rooting: If you touch an infant’s cheek, the infant will turn its head toward the stimulus and open its mouth as if expecting a nipple. Reflex disappears usually after 3-4 months

22. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Survival Reflexes Sucking: If you touch or otherwise stimulate an infant’s mouth, they will respond by sucking or making rhythmic movements with their mouth. One of the last reflexes to develop Babies who are premature, ill or very small may not have this reflex yet but will master it within a few weeks Reflex disappears after the first few months

23. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Survival Reflexes Pupillary: The pupil’s of infants’ eyes narrow when in bright light and when going to sleep, and widen when in dim light and waking up. This is a permanent reflex

24. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Survival Reflexes Eye-blink: Infants blink in response to an object’s moving quickly toward their eyes or to a puff of air. This is a permanent reflex

25. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Primitive Reflexes

26. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Primitive Reflexes Moro (startle) When infants are startled by loud sounds or by being suddenly dropped a few inches, they will first spread their arms and stretch out their fingers, then bring their arms back to their body and clench their fingers.

27. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Primitive Reflexes Palmar: when an infant’s palm is stimulated, an infant will grasp tightly and increase the grasp if the stimulus is pulled away (disappears after 5 months) Plantar: When an object or finger is placed on the sole of the infant’s foot, the infant will flex their foot. Similar to the palmar reflex (disappears after 9 months) probably passed down from our ancestors who used their hands and feet to climb trees

28. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Primitive Reflexes Babinski: If you stroke the bottom of an infant’s foot from heel to toes, the infant will spread the small toes and raise the large one. Disappears after 6 months absence of Babinski can mean neurological damage

29. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Primitive Reflexes Stepping: when infants are held upright with their feet against a flat surface and are moved forward, they appear to walk in a coordinated way disappears after 2-3 months

30. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Primitive Reflexes attempt Swimming: Infants will attempt to swim in a coordinated way if placed in water in a prone position disappears after 6 months

31. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Primitive Reflexes Tonic neck: When infants’ heads are turned to one side, they will extend the arm and leg and flex the arm and leg on the opposite side, as in a fencing position disappears after 4 months

32. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Infancy (from one month to about 18 months) Babies learn through classical conditioning Humans apparently have an inborn need for attachment Secure attachment Anxious-ambivalent attachment Avoidant attachment

33. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Infancy (from one month to about 18 months) Maturation – The unfolding of genetically programmed processes of growth and development over time

34. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Birth

35. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Responds to sound Becomes quiet when picked up Vocalizes occasionally Birth 1 mo.

36. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Smiles socially Recognizes mother Rolls from side to back Lifts head and holds it erect and steady Birth1 mo. 2 mo.

37. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Vocalizes to the smiles and talk of an adult Searches for source of sound Sits with support, head steady Birth1 mo.2 mo. 3 mo.

38. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Gaze follows dangling ring, vanishing spoon, and ball moved across table Sits with slight support Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo. 4 mo.

39. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Discriminates strangers from familiar persons Turns from back to side Makes distinctive vocalizations Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo. 5 mo.

40. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Lifts cup and bangs it Smiles at mirror image Reaches for small object Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo. 6 mo.

41. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Makes playful responses to mirror Sits alone steadily Crawls Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.

42. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Vocalizes up to four different syllables Listens selectively to familiar words Pulls to standing position Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo. 8 mo.

43. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.8 mo. 9 mo.

44. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Plays pat-a-cake Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.8 mo.9 mo. 10 mo.

45. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Stands alone Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.8 mo.9 mo.10 mo. 11 mo.

46. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Walks alone Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.8 mo.9 mo.10 mo.11 mo. 1 year

47. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What Are the Developmental Tasks of Infancy and Childhood? Infants and children face especially important developmental tasks in the areas of cognition and social relationships – tasks that lay a foundation for further growth in adolescence and adulthood

48. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Cognitive Development Cognitive development – The process by which thinking changes over time Schemes – Mental structures or programs that guide a developing child’s thoughts

49. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Accommodation – Mental process that restructures existing schemes so that new information is better understood Cognitive Development Assimilation – Mental process that modifies new information to fit it into existing schemes

50. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational

51. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational Birth to about age 2 Child relies heavily on innate motor responses to stimuli Sensorimotor intelligence Mental representations Object permanence

52. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational About age 2 to age 6 or 7 Marked by well- developed mental representation and the use of language Egocentrism Animalistic thinking Centration

53. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational About age 7 to about age 11 Child understands conservation but is incapable of abstract thought Conservation Mental operations

54. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational From about age 12 on Abstract thought appears

55. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Social and Emotional Development Theory of Mind – An awareness that other people’s behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one’s own Temperament – An individual’s characteristic manner of behavior or reaction

56. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Social and Emotional Development Zone of proximal development – The difference between what a child can do with help and what the child can do without any help or guidance Socialization – The lifelong process of shaping an individual’s behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society

57. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 1.Authoritarian parents 2.Authoritative parents 3.Permissive parents 4.Uninvolved parents Social and Emotional Development Most approaches to child rearing fall into one of the following four styles:

58. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Social and Emotional Development Other factors influencing a child’s development may include: Effects of day care School influences Leisure influences

59. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Age/Period Principal Challenge 0 to 1 1/2 years Trust vs. mistrust 1 1/2 to 3 years Autonomy vs. self doubt 3 to 6 years Initiative vs. guilt 6 years to puberty Confidence vs. inferiority Adolescence Identity vs. role confusion Early adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation Middle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation Late adulthood Ego-integrity vs. despair

60. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What Changes Mark the Transition of Adolescence? Adolescence offers new developmental challenges growing out of physical changes, cognitive changes, and socioemotional changes

61. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Transitions of Adolescence Adolescence – Developmental period beginning at puberty and ending at adulthood Rites of passage – Social rituals that mark the transition between developmental stages, especially between childhood and adulthood

62. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Physical Maturation in Adolescence Puberty – Onset of sexual maturity Around puberty, boys and girls become more aware of their physical attractiveness

63. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Cognitive Development in Adolescence Formal operational stage – Piaget’s final stage of cognitive growth (abstract and complex thought) Hormones rise to high levels The frontal lobes undergo a “remodel” This leads to sensation seeking and risk taking, and preoccupation with body image and sex

64. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The increasing influence of peers Common social problems in adolescence Delinquency Social Identity in Adolescence Identity crisis

65. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning I. Preconventional morality Stage 1: Pleasure/pain orientation Stage 2: Cost/benefit orientation; reciprocity

66. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 II. Conventional morality Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning Stage 3: “Good child” orientation Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation

67. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 III. Postconventional (principled) morality Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning Stage 5: Social contract orientation Stage 6: Ethical principle orientation

68. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning Culture and morality Gender and morality

69. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What Developmental Challenges Do Adults Face? Nature and nurture continue to produce changes throughout life, but in adulthood these changes include both growth and decline

70. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Developmental Challenges of Adulthood Love and work Intimacy versus isolation Generativity versus stagnation Generativity – A process of making a commitment beyond oneself to family, work, society, or future generations

71. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Last Developmental Problems You Will Face Ego-identity – The ability to look back on life without regrets and to enjoy a sense of wholeness According to Erikson, the final crisis involves ego-identity vs. despair

72. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Last Developmental Problems You Will Face Some of the most obvious changes that occur with age affect physical abilities such as Vision Hearing Thinking, learning, and problem solving Memory Sexual functioning Social interaction Emotions

73. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 End of Chapter 9