1. RESEARCH METHODS: KEY TERMS
SECTIONS 1
Hypothesis 2
Variables 3
Sampling Techniques 4
Risk Factors 5
Reliability 6
Validity 7
Ethical Issues 8
Data Collection

2. Core Studies Loftus & Palmer Maguire Baron-Cohen Piliavin
Savage-Rumbaugh
Reicher & Haslam
Samuel & Bryant
Rosenhan
Bandura
Thigpen & Cleckley
Freud
Griffiths
Dement & Kleitman
Milgram
Sperry

3. KEY TERMS Complete key terms sheet for the following terms.
HYPOTHESIS
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE
OPPORTUNITY
SAMPLE
VALIDITY
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
SITUATIONAL VARIABLE
INTERVIEWER BIAS
INTERNAL VALIDITY
NULL HYPOTHESIS
PERSON
VARIABLE
EXPERIMENTER BIAS
SOCIAL DESIRABILITY
ONE TAILED HYPOTHESIS
EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLE
RELIABILITY
QUALITATIVE
DATA
TWO TAILED HYPOTHESIS
CONTROLING EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
INTERNAL RELIABILITY
QUANTIATIVE DATA
VARIABLES
SAMPLING
EXTERNAL RELIABILITY
MEAN
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
RANDOM
EXTERNAL VALIDITY
MEDIAN
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
SELF-SELECTED (VOLUNTEER)
DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS
MODE

4. HYPOTHESIS
Alternative
Null
One tailed
Two tailed

5. ‘there will be an effect of x on y’
Experimental (alterative) Hypothesis
Definition
A statement of the relationship between the IV and DV
Reasons for using
An alternative to the null hypothesis (accept/reject)

6. ‘there will be no effect of x on y’
Null Hypothesis
An assumption that there is no relationship (difference, association, etc) in the population from which a sample is taken with respect to the variables being studied.

7. Directional Hypothesis Non-directional hypothesis
1 TAILED
Definition
Predicts the effect/relationship
Reasons for using
Previous research suggests the direction
Non-directional hypothesis
2 TAILED
Definition
Does not predict the direction of the effect/relationship
Reasons for using
Allows for a difference/relationships occurring in either direction
Previous research has been inconclusive

8. VARIABLES Independent Dependent Situational Personal Experimenter
Extraneous

9. Variables
Independent Variable
Manipulated by the experimenter
Create different conditions
Dependent Variable
Measures the consequence of IV manipulation

10. ING
NEOUS
Situational variables are characteristics of the environment in which the experiment is being conducted which may have an effect on the results. The nature of these variables is very much dependent on the nature of the experiment but temperature, time and humidity could all be situational variables.
Person or Subject variables are inherent characteristics of the Experimental Unit that might affect outcomes. Hence examples of subject variables might include age, gender and other demographic details (among subjects) and x, y and z (among objects) although this is very much dependent on the object in the experiment.
Experimental variables are characteristics of the experimenter or the experimental team which might influence how the experiment is conducted, or how the experimental subject responds/behaves in the experimental setting. There is a wide definition for these variables and they may include age, gender, qualifications, etc.

11. Controlling EV
It is necessary to control extraneous variables so that results are not undermined by their effect (become confounding):
Control: Ensuring that an extraneous variable remains the same for all experimental units in the experiment. This requires that you are aware of the extraneous variable during the design stage and that you can control it.
Constant: Balance the variable across experimental groups This enables comparisons to be made between experimental units on the basis of the effect of the variable.

12. Sampling Method
Random
Self Selected (volunteer)
Opportunity

14. Population Sample Definition Evaluation Definition Evaluation
The group of people whom the sample is drawn
Evaluation
May be biased
Sample
Definition
Selected to be representative of the population
Evaluation
May be biased ,therefore can’t generalise

15. Random sampling Definition
Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
Advantage
Potentially unbiased
Most replicable
Disadvantage
Needs to be drawn from a large population to be unbiased
Difficult to obtain

16. Volunteer Sample Self Selected
Definition
Participants become part of a study by volunteering
Advantage
Access to a variety of participants
Ethically sound
Disadvantage
Volunteer biased
Small sample
Participants for
Psychological
Research

17. Opportunity Sample Definition Advantage Disadvantage
Are you available?
Opportunity Sample
Definition
Selecting people who are more easily available
Advantage
Easy to obtain
Disadvantage
Very biased
Not replicable

18. Factors associated with research design
Control of extraneous variables
Interviewer bias
Experimenter bias
Standardisation

19. Any variables that change between conditions, other than the IV...
Control of Extraneous Variables
Any variables that change between conditions, other than the IV...

20. Interviewer bias Experimenter bias
Investigator effect: Anything the investigator does which has an effect on a participant’s performance in a study other then what was intended.
Interviewer bias
The same in an interview situation, through, for example, leading questions and the ‘Green-spoon’ effect
Experimenter bias
The effect of an experimenter’s expectations, communicated unconsciously, on a participant’s behaviour

21. Standardisation Procedures Pts treated in exactly the same way.
Instructions Pts told what to do in exactly the same way.

22. Reliability of Measurement
Internal
External

24. Validity Internal External
Kelly (1927) stated that a test is valid if it measures what it claims to measure.
For example a test of intelligence should measure intelligence and not something else (such as memory).
Internal
External

25. Generalisability
The findings of any particular study should apply to the whole population

26. Types of Validity
Experimental
Internal
External
Measure
Concurrent
Content

27. Validity: The legitimacy of a study
Internal Validity
The extent to which the a measurement technique measures what it is supposed to
Reasons for low internal validity
Demand Characteristics: Features of an experiment the elicit a particular response form participants.
Participant reactivity
Extraneous variables not controlled (CV), act as an additional IV.
Mundane realism: Do measures used generalise to real life > contribute to external validity
External Validity
Validity outside of the research situation, extent to which findings can be generalised
Assessing external validity
How representative is the sample of participants of the population to which the results are to be generalised? Population V
Do the research setting and situation generalise to a real-life setting or situation? Ecological V
Do the findings generalise to the past and to the future? Historical V

28. Situational Variables Participant Variables Investigator Effects
Experimental
Internal
Extraneous
Mundane Realism
External
Ecological Validity
Population Validity
Historical Validity
Extraneous Variables
Situational Variables
Participant Variables
Investigator Effects
Demand Characteristics
Participant Effects

29. Participant reactivity: The fact that participants react to cues in an experimental situation
Hawthorne Effect
Increased attention becomes a confounding variable
Demand Characteristics
Features of an experiment that a participant unconsciously, responds to when searching for clues about how to behave. A confounding variable.
Social Desirability bias
The desire to appear favourably

30. Validity of Psychological Measure
Concurrent Validity
How well does the measure agree with existing measures?
- Test using old and new tests
Content Validity
Does the method used actually seem to measure what you intended?
- Use a panel of experts
Concurrent
Measure
Content

31. Ethical Issues Right to withdraw Confidentiality Protection from harm
Informed consent

32. Dealing with Ethical Issues
Presumptive… A B C
Prior…

33. Dealing with informed consent
Presumptive consent: Ask for others’ opinion and presume participants feel the same way.
Prior general consent: Get participants to agree to take part in a number of studies, one of which they will be deceived in.

34. Dealing with Ethical Issues

35. Dealing with deception
Debriefing: Inform participants of true nature of the study after it is conducted and allow them to discuss their feelings.
Right to withhold information
Cost and benefits: Deception is acceptable if the benefits are sufficient.

36. Dealing with Ethical Issues

37. Dealing with protection from psychological harm
Anticipating harm and stopping
Using role-play
Use of questionnaires: Ask people how they would behave.
Debriefing

38. Data Types: Quantitative & Qualitative
Measures of central tendency: mean, median, mode
Graphical representations

39. Data Collection Quantitative Data Easy to analysis
Produces neat conclusions
 Oversimplifies reality
Qualitative Data
Represents the complexity of human behaviour
Provides rich data
More difficult to detect patterns and reach conclusions
Subjective, affected by personal expectations and beliefs

40. 2,4,4,5,6,6,7,7
8,8,8,8,8
9,10,11,11,12

41. Measures of Central Tendency
Mean: Add values, divide by number of values
Makes use of all the data
Can be misrepresentative if there are extreme values.
Median: Middle value in an ordered list
Not affected by extreme scores
Not as ‘sensitive’ as the mean
Mode: The most common value(s)
The mist common value(s)
Not useful when there are several modes

43. Graphs & Charts Histogram Bar Charts Scattergraph
Graph showing continuous frequency data with a true zero e.g Exam results 0-30marks
Bar Charts
Graph showing frequency data; data need not be continuous e.g. Categories
Scattergraph
For correlations. Scatter of dots; each dot represent one case