1. Important Assignment!!!!

2. Activity
Recall vs. Recognition

3. Remembering & Forgetting
Module 12
Remembering & Forgetting

4. Recall vs. Recognition Recall Recognition
Retrieving previously learned information without the aid of or with very few external cues
Recognition
Identifying previously learned information with the help of more external cues

5. Organization of Memories
Network Theory
We store related ideas in separate categories, called nodes
As we make associations between information, we create links among thousands of nodes
Nodes make up a huge interconnected network of files

6. Network Hierarchy Nodes Network hierarchy
Memory files that contain related information organized around a specific topic
Network hierarchy
Arrangement of nodes in a certain order
At the bottom, are nodes with very concrete information
These nodes are linked to more specific information, which is connected to more general information

7. Forgetting
Refers to the inability to retrieve, recall, or recognize information that was stored or is still stored in long-term memory.

8. Forgetting Curve Ebbinghaus
Measures the amount of previously learned information that subjects can recall across time
Ebbinghaus
One of the 1st psychologists to study memory & forgetting
He tested his own memory of nonsense syllables

9. 4 Reasons for Forgetting
Repression
Mental process that automatically hides emotionally threatening or anxiety-producing information in the unconscious
Poor Retrieval Cues
Retrieval cues are mental reminders that we create by forming vivid mental images or creating associations between new information & information we already know
Amnesia
Loss of memory due to a blow or damage to the brain, after drug use, or after severe psychological stress
Interference
Recall of a memory is blocked by other related memories

10. Interference
Theory that we may forget information not because it is no longer in storage or memory but rather because old or newer related information produces confusion and thus blocks retrieval from memory

11. 2 Types of Interference Proactive Retroactive
Old information (learned earlier) blocks or disrupts the remembering of new information (learned later)
Retroactive
New information (learned later) blocks or disrupts the remembering of old information (learned earlier)
blocks or disrupts
the retrieval of related old info
learned EARLIER (psychology)

12. Retrieval Cues
Mental reminders that you create by forming vivid mental images of information or associating new information with information that you already know
State Dependent Learning
It is easier to recall information when you are in the same physiological or emotional state or setting as when you originally encoded the information

13. Forgetting- Cue Dependence Theory
Explains forgetting as due to the failure to have or use adequate retrieval cues
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: Refers to having a strong feeling that a particular word can be recalled, but despite making a great effort, we are temporarily unable to recall this particular information. Later, in a different situation, we may recall the information.
The inability to recall info that one knows has been stored in long-term memory
Universal, increases with age, and occurs about once a week

14. Forgetting- Cue Dependence Theory
Encoding Specificity: Recall will be best when cues that were associated with the encoding of a memory are also present during attempts at retrieving it
Context Dependent Memory: Recall to be best when the environmental context present during the encoding of a memory is also present during attempts at retrieving it
State Dependent Memory: Recall to be best when one’s emotional or physiological state is the same during the recall during attempts at retrieving it
Mood Dependent Memory: Recall to be best when one’s mood is the same during the recall of a memory as it was during the encoding of that memory
Mood Congruent Memory: Tendency to recall memories that are consistent with one’s current mood
Helps explain the self-perpetuating nature of depression

15. Where should you take your psychology tests?

16. Discussion:
If you wanted to change your study habits, how would you use information about why we forget?

17. Biological Bases of Memory
Cortex- short-term memories & long-term memories (stores)
Thin layer of brain cells that cover the surface of the forebrain
Amygdala- emotional memories (adds emotional associations)
Almond-shaped structure lying below the surface of the cortex in the tip of the temporal lobe
Plays a critical role in adding a wide range of emotions to our memories
Hippocampus- transferring memories from STM to LTM (transfers)
Curved, finger-like structure that lies beneath the cortex in the temporal lobe
Transfers declarative information (words, facts & events) from STM into LTM

18. Location of Memories in the Brain

19. STM: Neural Assemblies
Groups of interconnected neurons whose activation allows information or stimuli to be recognized and held briefly and temporarily in short-term memory
One mechanism for holding information in short-term memory

20. LTM: Long-Term Potential (LTP)
Researchers believe that learning changes the structure and function of the neuron itself
LTP refers to the increased sensitivity of a neuron to stimulation after it has been repeatedly stimulated (by changing the neuron’s structure)

21. Mnemonic Devices
Ways to improve encoding and create better retrieval cues by forming vivid associations or images
Techniques for organizing information to be memorized to make it easier to remember
SQR4 Method
Elaborative Rehearsal (vs. maintenance rehearsal & rote memorization)
Overlearning
Distributed Practice (vs. Massed Practice)
Method of Loci
Acronyms
Pegword Method
Link Method
Narrative Method

22. SQR4 Method Student using the following processes to read and study:
Surveys: Glance through the headings throughout a section to get an idea about which you will be reading
Questions: As you survey, develop questions that you should be able to answer when finished
Read: Carefully read the material
Recite: Be sure you can answer all the questions and explain what you have read
Review: Quiz yourself on the section and reread the necessary portions that you didn’t know well
wRite: Write what you have learned in your own words.

23. Elaborative Rehearsal
Processing information at a relatively deep level
Far superior to maintenance rehearsal & rote memorization (process at a relatively shallow level)

24. Overlearning Study material beyond the point of initial mastery
Helps performance partially due to increased confidence

25. Distributed Practice
Spreading out memorization of information or learning over several sessions
Far superior to massed practice (Cramming the memorization of information or learning into one session)

26. Method of Loci
Create visual associations between already memorized places & new items to be memorized
Mnemonic device that involves associating the items you need to remember with the landmarks of a familiar place
You recall the items as you take a mental walk through the familiar place

27. Acronym
Forming a term from the first letters of a series of words that need to be remembered

28. Pegword Method
Create associations between number-word rhymes and items to be memorized
One is a bun; two is a shoe; three is a tree; four is a door; five is a hive
First, make-up a simple rhyme like 1= bun, 2= shoe, 3= bee, etc.
Associate the items you need to remember with the peg words (like bun) in your rhyme
The stranger the association, the easier it will be for you to remember the item

29. Link Method
Connect images of the items you need to remember in sequence

30. Narrative Method
Connect unrelated items that you must remember together in a story

31. Discussion:
Can you describe a mnemonic method to remember the four reasons for forgetting?

32. Creating Memories 27 8 False Memories
Activities
Creating Memories 27 8
False Memories

33. Can False Memories Be Implanted?
Researchers interviewed parents about events that occurred in their children’s lives during the past 12 months
Each 3- to 6-year-old was read a list of these events including some fictitious events
Children were asked to “think hard” & identify the events that actually happened
Bar graph data from “Repeatedly Thinking About a Non-Event: Source Misattributions Among Pre-Schoolers,” by S. J. Ceci, M. L. C. Huffman, E. Smith & E. Loftus, 1994, Consciousness and Cognition, 3,

34. How Accurate is an Eyewitness?
Own-Race Bias
Researchers found that an eyewitness of one race is less accurate when identifying an accused person of another race
Confidence
6 reviews of studies concluded that there is a weak relationship between correct identification & level of witness confidence

35. Can Questions Change the Answers?
Did the car pass the barn?
After watching a film segment, subjects were asked, “How fast was the red sports car going when it passed the barn?”
Although there was no barn in the film, 17% of subjects reported seeing a barn
Was there a stop sign?
Subjects were shown slides of a traffic accident involving a stop sign & asked questions about what they saw
Some subjects were asked misleading questions about a yield sign instead of a stop sign
Subjects who had been given misleading questions were more likely to report seeing a yield sign than subjects who were not misled

36. Source Misattribution
Memory error that results when a person has difficulty deciding which of 2 sources a memory came from
Factors contributing to source misattribution
false suggestions
misleading questions
misinformation

37. Cognitive Interview Used by investigators to interview eyewitnesses
Technique for questioning people by having them imagine & reconstruct the details of an event & report everything they remember

38. Discussion:
If you were on a jury, what concerns would you have when listening to eyewitness testimony?

39. Activity
Earliest Memory

40. Discussion:
What are some possible explanations for why adults don’t have memories for experiences that occurred early in childhood?

41. Memory Activities
Exploratorium

42. The Mind #10 Life Without Memory: The Case of Clive Wearing
#11 Clive Wearing, Part 2: Living Without Memory
Discussion 23 3

43. Activity
Applying Study Skills

44. Applied Memory Study Skills
Distribute rather than mass study time.
Study about minutes at a time (about one section of a module) rather than 3 hours the night before an exam.
Reinforce rather than punish “good” student behavior.
Do something fun (watch TV, talk on the phone, shoot hoops) AFTER you have done your studying.

45. Applied Memory Study Skills
Create a study area.
Okay, so you can’t afford one room just for studying. Have a STUDY LAMP that you bring to your kitchen or bedroom when you study. When your lamp is on, you don’t eat, watch TV, talk on the phone, etc. Try the library. Choose an area that is free of distractions.
Become active (reciting, walking, or taking notes) rather than remaining passive while studying.
We all have had the experience of reading two pages mindlessly and not remembering a thing we’ve read. Put your brain in gear. Ask yourself questions about the material, ask questions during class, make flashcards, arrange study groups.

46. Applied Memory Study Skills
Discover meaning rather than merely memorizing.
Can you do the concept reviews and summary tests without looking at the answers?
Do you understand what the material means well enough to answer the study questions?
Try to put the lecture or textual material into your own words.
Take time to integrate new material with concepts that you already understand.

47. Applied Memory Study Skills
Use mnemonics (techniques to improve recall).
Employ acronyms (FOIL, ROY G BIV)
Use peg words
Utilize the method of loci
Eliminate interference.
Study one subject at a time, space study periods, study before or after sleeping.

48. Applied Memory Study Skills
Understand the concept rather than recognizing having seen it.
The most common reason that students FORGET is that they never LEARNED the material in the first place- remember, what’s on a penny?.
SQ4R- Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review, and wRite.
Use this method…our text fits great with it.

49. Applied Memory Study Skills
Overlearn.
Studies show that the more one reviews material (even material one has mastered), the better it is remembered and the easier it is to retrieve. This is not to be confused with OVERSTUDYING which is another word for cramming at the last minute.
Encode in as many different ways as possible.
- Visual: highlight text, visually arrange notes, use imagery
- Auditory: tape record lecture or yourself going over important concepts, teach someone else, use tutoring services
- Tactile: rewrite notes or combine lecture notes with textbook information, use hands-on where possible (get a brain model)

50. Applied Memory Study Skills
Take good notes.
Rephrase what the teacher has said in your own words (so that you understand it and can associate it personally).
Write more than what is put on the board or screen (add examples and other students’ questions).
Rewrite your notes after class.
Compare your notes with other students (for missing information or other way of understanding).
Divide your note page vertically so that the left side can be used later for important terms or added notes.

51. Applied Memory Study Skills
Strategic textbook reading
Read before as well as after the lecture on the material. The former helps you understand the lecture better, the latter reinforces it.
Write comments in the margins of the text.
Look up difficult words (keep a dictionary handy).
Remember that reading does not equal studying. Reading textbooks are not like reading a novel. Being familiar with the material does not mean you will remember the specifics.

52. Applied Memory Study Skills
Managing Time
Get a date book and with a syllabus in hand set up a realistic study schedule.
Divide up larger tasks (such as term papers) into smaller sub-tasks.
When registering for classes make sure that your goals and times are manageable (balance family, job, fun).
Go to class and if you should miss get notes and assignments from a good student.

53. Applied Memory Study Skills
Test Taking Skills
Multiple-choice is choosing the BEST choice, so make sure you read all answers.
If part of a true-false is false then the entire question is false.
On essays, jot down a quick outline before you start writing. Do the essays before the multiple choice.
Skip questions you do not know and come back to them (later questions may help you remember).
Relax.

54. Applied Memory Study Skills
Choose friends wisely.
Choose friends that are interested in learning and a career.
Their motivation will help you get involved and keep you on track (and vice-versa).

55. Movie: Overboard
What is the cause of Goldie’s amnesia and what are some other ways a person may develop amnesia?
What triggers Goldie to remember everything about her life at once? What could possibly explain the instantaneous recovery of her memory?
Do you believe someone’s personality could change, like Goldie’s character, if during a period of amnesia, you were made to believe that your were someone you really weren’t? Why or why not?

56. Movie: While You Were Sleeping
How did Bullock’s character come to be engaged to her first fiance’?
How easily do you think people are influenced to believe false memories? Have you ever been influenced to have false memories?
How accurate is oral information? Cite examples from movie for support.

57. The Brain #17 Learning as Synaptic Change
#18 Living With Amnesia: The Hippocampus & Memory
#20 A Super-Memorist Advises on Study Strategies

58. PsychSim 4.0
Forgetting

59. PsychQuest
Can We Rely on Memory?