4.  From 1960s to 1990s ◦ Records and Record Players ◦ Reels, Cassettes and Tape Recorders ◦ Language Labs ◦ Video and Video tapes ◦ CD ROMs were the effective teaching tools in Language Classes  From 1990s onwards ( due to widespread use of internet)  Online language learning programs  Websites providing materials for language learners  Wikis, Blogs, Podcasts, etc. providing interactive support  Course Management Systems like Moodle, Sakai, Blackboard, etc., allowing universities and educationalists to design their courses online.

7. Personality competent Inter-personality competent Inter-culturally competent Communicatively competent Media competent

8.  Learner training aims to help learners consider the factors that affect their learning and discover the learning strategies that suit them best so that they may become more effective learners and take on more responsibility for their own learning. (Ellis and Sinclair 1989)

10.  There is convincing evidence that people who take the initiative in learning (pro-active learners) learn more things and learn better than do people who sit at the feet of teachers, passively waiting to be taught (reactive learners). (Knowles 1975)  During the 1970s methodological trends in ELT moved towards a perspective of adult learners as capable of self-direction, able to plan and organize their own learning, and able to proceed in language learning with the kind of self-reliance they develop in other areas of their lives. (ELT Journal Volume 47/1 January 1993)

11.  Considering student ‘motivation’  Shifting ‘responsibility’  Encouraging ‘reflection’  Developing study skills  Building confidence  Encouraging experimentation

13.  Learning strategies leamer organisation  resources available  infrastructures  self-study  opportunities leamer awareness  learning styles  needs/goals  self-assessment  attitudes/group dynamics Language strategies communication  speaking  listening  reading  writing language  assimilation  memory  self-editing  monitoring

14. Speaking:  paralinguistic features, mime gesture.  conversation management: active listening/changing direction  gaining time: hesitation/lubricators/waffling  avoidance: synonyms/circumlocution  repair strategies: dealing with error  practice/rehearsal  risk-taking  affective factors Listening:  goal setting/ prediction / using personal knowledge  affective factors: dealing with uncertainty  awareness of extensive listening  awareness of context/style/register  guessing: use of paralinguistic clues  use of cohesive devices/key words  summarising/chunking/note-taking  expressing misunderstanding Reading;  goal setting/prediction/using personal knowledge  awareness of extensive reading  awareness of text types/style/register  use of visual clues/diagrams  use of cohesive devices, anaphoric and cataphoric reference  chunking/note taking  dictionary use  inference of meaning from context Writing:  goal setting: content/audience  brainstorming/mind maps  planning: text coherence/paragraphs  drafting: cohesive devices/dictionary use/avoidance  strategies: simplification/paraphrase  self/peer editing

15. Assimilation:  metalinguistic awareness (eg: grammatical terminology)  deduction/induction (of language rules/pattems)  translation/transfer (L1-L2)  grouping/classification (of new language Memory:  grouping/classification of language  use of images/sounds  word association  practice/rehearsal  transfer Editing/monitoring:  self-editing  peer/group editing  self/peer/group monitoring  awareness of error

16. Listening:  Use of non-linguistic clues.  Awareness of the need for extensive listening (rather than trying to understand everything in a text).  Ignoring words that are not known. Speaking  Use of rules of discourse (tum-taking etc).  Awareness of error as part of the leaming process.  Compensation strategies: using communication strategies to overcome difficulties, asking for help, clarification, use of cognates.  Avoidance strategies: use of simple constructions / referring to the functions of an object. Writing  Awareness of error as part of lerning process.  Maximum use of linguistic and sociocultural resources available. Reading  Use of available communication strategies to overcome problems of comprehension.  Awareness of the need for extensive reading (rather than trying to understand everything in a text).  Ignoring words that are not known.  Use of elaboration: taking into account previous knowledge.  Inference of meaning from context. Reflection on leaming  Understanding of principal mechanisms implied in language leaming.  Awareness of importance of participation and positive attitude.  Awareness of own knowledge about language as support.  Importance of risk-taking.  Self-monitoring.  Conscious use of leaming strategies such as: paraphrasing, deduction, grouping  Awareness of task types and communication strategies (such as use of cognates).  Self-assessment.  Awareness of group dynamics

18. Familiarisation with textbook:  students match pictures with the topics dealt with in the book;  students answer a quiz about the textbook (eg: What is in the picture on page 23?)  students workout their own quizzes in pairs or groups for others in the class to answer. Awareness of resources:  students match descriptions (eg: monolingual dictionary)  students list the leaming resources at their disposai and then think about which are the most important. Awareness of leaming styles:  in pairs students do a survey activity about what ciassroom activities are most useful for them;  students answer a leamer questionnaire about what kind of leamer they are. Listening strategies:  students evalúate advice about listening: good/bad (Example: Stop listening if you don't understand every word = bad advice); students list the strategies they have used during a listening activity; students order strategies. Spcaking strategies:  students match advice with problems; students think of advice to give to solve problems; students select appropriate speaking strategies for specific situations (eg:telephoning/shopping)".

21.  What’s expected of you?  Being a good student  Knowing your learning self (analysing yourself)  A good language learner  How to study at home (planning, etc.)  Self-assessment  Learner diaries, journals  Using the internet  Choosing and using dictionaries  Choosing / having the right resources  Exploiting other resources  How to listen  How to read  How to write  How to speak  Using the library