1. Statistics for Business and Economics
Chapter 6
Inferences Based on a Single Sample: Tests of Hypothesis

2. Learning Objectives Distinguish Types of Hypotheses
Describe Hypothesis Testing Process
Explain p-Value Concept
Solve Hypothesis Testing Problems Based on a Single Sample
Explain Power of a Test
As a result of this class, you will be able to ...

3. Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics
Statistical Methods
Statistical Methods
Descriptive Statistics
Inferential Statistics
Hypothesis Testing
Estimation 5

4. Nonstatistical Hypothesis Testing
A criminal trial is an example of hypothesis testing without the statistics.
In a trial a jury must decide between two hypotheses. The null hypothesis is
H0: The defendant is innocent
The alternative hypothesis or research hypothesis is
H1: The defendant is guilty
The jury does not know which hypothesis is true. They must make a decision on the basis of evidence presented.

5. Nonstatistical Hypothesis Testing
In the language of statistics convicting the defendant is called
rejecting the null hypothesis in favor of the
alternative hypothesis.
That is, the jury is saying that there is enough evidence to conclude that the defendant is guilty (i.e., there is enough evidence to support the alternative hypothesis).

6. Nonstatistical Hypothesis Testing
If the jury acquits it is stating that
there is not enough evidence to support the
alternative hypothesis.
Notice that the jury is not saying that the defendant is innocent, only that there is not enough evidence to support the alternative hypothesis. That is why we never say that we accept the null hypothesis.

7. Nonstatistical Hypothesis Testing
There are two possible errors.
A Type I error occurs when we reject a true null hypothesis. That is, a Type I error occurs when the jury convicts an innocent person.
A Type II error occurs when we don’t reject a false null hypothesis. That occurs when a guilty defendant is acquitted.

8. Nonstatistical Hypothesis Testing
The probability of a Type I error is denoted as α (Greek letter alpha). The probability of a type II error is β (Greek letter beta).
The two probabilities are inversely related. Decreasing one increases the other.

9. Nonstatistical Hypothesis Testing
5. Two possible errors can be made.
Type I error: Reject a true null hypothesis
Type II error: Do not reject a false null hypothesis.
P(Type I error) = α
P(Type II error) = β

10. Decision Results H0: Innocent Jury Trial H0 Test Actual Situation
True
False
Accept
1 – a
Type II
Error
(b)
Reject
Type I
Error (a)
Power
(1 – b)
Actual Situation
Verdict
Innocent
Guilty
Innocent
Correct
Error
Guilty
Error
Correct

11.  &  Have an Inverse Relationship
You can’t reduce both errors simultaneously!  

12. Nonstatistical Hypothesis Testing
In our judicial system Type I errors are regarded as more serious. We try to avoid convicting innocent people. We are more willing to acquit guilty people.
We arrange to make α small by requiring the prosecution to prove its case and instructing the jury to find the defendant guilty only if there is “evidence beyond a reasonable doubt.”

13. Nonstatistical Hypothesis Testing
The critical concepts are theses:
1. There are two hypotheses, the null and the alternative hypotheses.
2. The procedure begins with the assumption that the null hypothesis is true.
3. The goal is to determine whether there is enough evidence to infer that the alternative hypothesis is true.
4. There are two possible decisions:
Conclude that there is enough evidence to support the alternative hypothesis.
Conclude that there is not enough evidence to support the alternative hypothesis.

14. Concepts of Hypothesis Testing (1)
There are two hypotheses. One is called the null hypothesis and the other the alternative or research hypothesis. The usual notation is:
H0: — the ‘null’ hypothesis
H1: — the ‘alternative’ or ‘research’ hypothesis
The null hypothesis (H0) will always state that the parameter equals the value specified in the alternative hypothesis (H1)
pronounced
H “nought”

15. Concepts of Hypothesis Testing
Consider the following example. Suppose our operations manager wants to know whether the mean is different from 350 units. We can rephrase this request into a test of the hypothesis:
H0:µ = 350
Thus, our research hypothesis becomes:
H1:µ ≠ 350
This is what we are interested in determining…

16. Concepts of Hypothesis Testing (2)
The testing procedure begins with the assumption that the null hypothesis is true.
Thus, until we have further statistical evidence, we will assume:
H0: = (assumed to be TRUE)

17. Concepts of Hypothesis Testing (3)
The goal of the process is to determine whether there is enough evidence to infer that the alternative hypothesis is true.
That is, is there sufficient statistical information to determine if this statement is true?
H1:µ ≠ 350
This is what we are interested in determining…

18. Concepts of Hypothesis Testing (4)
There are two possible decisions that can be made:
Conclude that there is enough evidence to support the alternative hypothesis
(also stated as: rejecting the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative)
Conclude that there is not enough evidence to support the alternative hypothesis
(also stated as: not rejecting the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative)
NOTE: we do not say that we accept the null hypothesis…

19. Concepts of Hypothesis Testing
Once the null and alternative hypotheses are stated, the next step is to randomly sample the population and calculate a test statistic (in this example, the sample mean).
If the test statistic’s value is inconsistent with the null hypothesis we reject the null hypothesis and infer that the alternative hypothesis is true.

20. Hypothesis Testing Concepts

21. Reject hypothesis! Not close.
Hypothesis Testing
I believe the population mean age is 50 (hypothesis).
Reject hypothesis! Not close.
Population 
Mean X = 20
Random sample 

22. I believe the mean GPA of this class is 3.5!
What’s a Hypothesis?
A belief about a population parameter
Parameter is population mean, proportion, variance
Must be stated before analysis
I believe the mean GPA of this class is 3.5!
© T/Maker Co.

23. Null Hypothesis What is tested
Has serious outcome if incorrect decision made
Always has equality sign: , , or 
Designated H0 (pronounced H-oh)
Specified as H0:   some numeric value
Specified with = sign even if  or 
Example, H0:   3

24. Alternative Hypothesis
Opposite of null hypothesis
Always has inequality sign: ,, or 
Designated Ha
Specified Ha:  ,, or  some value
Example, Ha:  < 3

25. Identifying Hypotheses Steps
Example problem: Test that the population mean is not 3
Steps:
State the question statistically (  3)
State the opposite statistically ( = 3)
Must be mutually exclusive & exhaustive
Select the alternative hypothesis (  3)
Has the , <, or > sign
State the null hypothesis ( = 3)

26. What Are the Hypotheses?
Is the population average amount of TV viewing 12 hours?
State the question statistically:  = 12
State the opposite statistically:   12
Select the alternative hypothesis: Ha:   12
State the null hypothesis: H0:  = 12

27. What Are the Hypotheses?
Is the population average amount of TV viewing different from 12 hours?
State the question statistically:   12
State the opposite statistically:  = 12
Select the alternative hypothesis: Ha:   12
State the null hypothesis: H0:  = 12

28. What Are the Hypotheses?
Is the average cost per hat less than or equal to $20?
State the question statistically:   20
State the opposite statistically:   20
Select the alternative hypothesis: Ha:   20
State the null hypothesis: H0:   20

29. What Are the Hypotheses?
Is the average amount spent in the bookstore greater than $25?
State the question statistically:   25
State the opposite statistically:   25
Select the alternative hypothesis: Ha:   25
State the null hypothesis: H0:   25

30. Sampling Distribution
Basic Idea
Sample Means m
= 50 H0
Sampling Distribution
It is unlikely that we would get a sample mean of this value ... 20
... therefore, we reject the hypothesis that  = 50.
... if in fact this were the population mean

31. Level of Significance Probability
Defines unlikely values of sample statistic if null hypothesis is true
Called rejection region of sampling distribution
Designated (alpha)
Typical values are .01, .05, .10
Selected by researcher at start

32. Rejection Region (One-Tail Test)Ho
Value
Critical a
Sample Statistic
Rejection
Region
Nonrejection
Sampling Distribution
1 – 
Level of Confidence
Observed sample statistic
Rejection region does NOT include critical value.

33. Rejection Region (One-Tail Test)
Sampling Distribution Ho
Value
Critical a
Sample Statistic
Rejection
Region
Nonrejection
Sampling Distribution
1 – 
Level of Confidence
Level of Confidence
Observed sample statistic
Rejection region does NOT include critical value.

34. Rejection Regions (Two-Tailed Test)Ho
Value
Critical
1/2 a
Sample Statistic
Rejection
Region
Nonrejection
Sampling Distribution
1 – 
Level of Confidence
Rejection region does NOT include critical value.
Observed sample statistic

35. Rejection Regions (Two-Tailed Test)Ho
Value
Critical
1/2 a
Sample Statistic
Rejection
Region
Nonrejection
Sampling Distribution
1 – 
Level of Confidence
Sampling Distribution
Level of Confidence
Rejection region does NOT include critical value.
Observed sample statistic

36. Rejection Regions (Two-Tailed Test)Ho
Value
Critical
1/2 a
Sample Statistic
Rejection
Region
Nonrejection
Sampling Distribution
1 – 
Level of Confidence
Sampling Distribution
Level of Confidence
Rejection region does NOT include critical value.
Observed sample statistic

37. Decision Making Risks

38. Decision Results H0: Innocent Jury Trial H0 Test Actual Situation
True
False
Accept
1 – a
Type II
Error
(b)
Reject
Type I
Error (a)
Power
(1 – b)
Actual Situation
Verdict
Innocent
Guilty
Innocent
Correct
Error
Guilty
Error
Correct

39. Errors in Making Decision
Type I Error
Reject true null hypothesis
Has serious consequences
Probability of Type I Error is (alpha)
Called level of significance
Type II Error
Do not reject false null hypothesis
Probability of Type II Error is (beta)

40. Factors Affecting  True value of population parameter
Increases when difference with hypothesized parameter decreases
Significance level, 
Increases when decreases
Population standard deviation, 
Increases when  increases
Sample size, n
Increases when n decreases

41. Hypothesis Testing Steps

42. H0 Testing Steps State H0 State Ha Choose  Choose n Choose test
Set up critical values
Collect data
Compute test statistic
Make statistical decision
Express decision

43. One Population Tests One Population Z Test t Test Mean Proportion
(1 & 2
tail)
t Test
Mean
Proportion
Variance c 2
Test

44. Two-Tailed Z Test of Mean ( Known)

45. One Population Tests One Population Z Test t Test Mean Proportion
(1 & 2
tail)
t Test
Mean
Proportion
Variance c 2
Test

46. Two-Tailed Z Test for Mean ( Known)
Assumptions
Population is normally distributed
If not normal, can be approximated by normal distribution (n  30)
Alternative hypothesis has  sign
3. Z-Test Statistic

47. Two-Tailed Z Test for Mean Hypotheses
H0:=0 Ha: ≠ 0
Reject H
Reject H
a / 2
a / 2 Z

48. Two-Tailed Z Test Finding Critical Z
What is Z given  = .05? Z
.05
.07
1.6
.4505
.4515
.4525
1.7
.4599
.4608
.4616
1.8
.4678
.4686
.4693
.4744
.4756
.06
1.9
.4750
Standardized Normal Probability Table (Portion)   s
= 1
 / 2 = .025  
1.96
-1.96 Z

49. Two-Tailed Z Test Example
Does an average box of cereal contain 368 grams of cereal? A random sample of 25 boxes showed x = The company has specified  to be 25 grams. Test at the .05 level of significance.
368 gm.

50. Two-Tailed Z Test Solution
H0:
Ha:
 
n 
Critical Value(s):
 = 368
  368
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
.05 25 Z
1.96
-1.96
.025
Reject H

51. Two-Tailed Z Test Solution
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
Do not reject at  = .05
No evidence average is not 368

52. Example 11.2
In recent years, a number of companies have been formed that offer competition to AT&T in long-distance calls.
All advertise that their rates are lower than AT&T's, and as a result their bills will be lower.
AT&T has responded by arguing that for the average consumer there will be no difference in billing.
Suppose that a statistics practitioner working for AT&T determines that the mean and standard deviation of monthly long-distance bills for all its residential customers are $17.09 and $3.87, respectively.

53. Example 11.2
He then takes a random sample of 100 customers and recalculates their last month's bill using the rates quoted by a leading competitor.
Assuming that the standard deviation of this population is the same as for AT&T, can we conclude at the 5% significance level that there is a difference between AT&T's bills and those of the leading competitor?

54. Example 11.2
IDENTIFY
The parameter to be tested is the mean of the population of AT&T’s customers’ bills based on competitor’s rates.
What we want to determine whether this mean differs from $ Thus, the alternative hypothesis is
H1: µ ≠ 17.09
The null hypothesis automatically follows.
H0: µ = 17.09

55. Example 11.2
IDENTIFY
The rejection region is set up so we can reject the null hypothesis when the test statistic is large or when it is small.
That is, we set up a two-tail rejection region. The total area in the rejection region must sum to , so we divide this probability by 2.
stat is “small”
stat is “large”

56. Example 11.2 At a 5% significance level (i.e. α = .05), we have
IDENTIFY
At a 5% significance level (i.e. α = .05), we have
α/2 = Thus, z.025 = 1.96 and our rejection region is:
z < – or z > 1.96
-z.025
+z.025 z

57. Two-Tailed Z Test Thinking Challenge
You’re a Q/C inspector. You want to find out if a new machine is making electrical cords to customer specification: average breaking strength of 70 lb. with  = 3.5 lb. You take a sample of 36 cords & compute a sample mean of 69.7 lb. At the .05 level of significance, is there evidence that the machine is not meeting the average breaking strength?

58. Two-Tailed Z Test Solution*
H0:
Ha:
 =
n =
Critical Value(s):
 = 70
  70
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
.05 36 Z
1.96
-1.96
.025
Reject H

59. Two-Tailed Z Test Solution*
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
Do not reject at  = .05
No evidence average is not 70

60. One-Tailed Z Test of Mean ( Known)

61. One-Tailed Z Test for Mean ( Known)
Assumptions
Population is normally distributed
If not normal, can be approximated by normal distribution (n  30)
Alternative hypothesis has < or > sign
3. Z-test Statistic

62. One-Tailed Z Test for Mean Hypotheses
H0:=0 Ha: < 0 Z a
Reject H
H0:=0 Ha: > 0
Small values satisfy H0 . Don’t reject! Z
Reject H a
Must be significantly below 

63. One-Tailed Z Test Finding Critical Z
What Is Z given  = .025? Z
.05
.07
1.6
.4505
.4515
.4525
1.7
.4599
.4608
.4616
1.8
.4678
.4686
.4693
.4744
.4756
.06
1.9
.4750
Standardized Normal Probability Table (Portion)   s
= 1
 = .025  
1.96 Z

64. Example 11.1
The manager of a department store is thinking about establishing a new billing system for the store's credit customers. She determines that the new system will be cost-effective only if the mean monthly account is more than $170. A random sample of 400 monthly accounts is drawn, for which the sample mean is $178. The manager knows that the accounts are approximately normally distributed with a standard deviation of $65. Can the manager conclude from this that the new system will be cost-effective?

65. Example 11.1
IDENTIFY
The system will be cost effective if the mean account balance for all customers is greater than $170.
We express this belief as our research hypothesis, that is:
H1: µ > (this is what we want to determine)
Thus, our null hypothesis becomes:
H0: µ = (this specifies a single value for the parameter of interest)

66. Example 11.1 What we want to show:
IDENTIFY
What we want to show:
H0: µ = 170 (we’ll assume this is true)
H1: µ > 170
We know:
n = 400,
= 178, and
σ = 65
What to do next?!

67. Example 11.1 Rejection region
COMPUTE
Example 11.1 Rejection region
It seems reasonable to reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative if the value of the sample mean is large relative to 170, that is if >
α = P(Type I error)
= P( reject H0 given that H0 is true)
α = P( > )

68. we can calculate this based on any level of significance ( ) we want…
Example 11.1
COMPUTE
All that’s left to do is calculate and compare it to 170.
we can calculate this based on any level of significance ( ) we want…

69. Example 11.1 At a 5% significance level (i.e. =0.05), we get
COMPUTE
At a 5% significance level (i.e. =0.05), we get
Solving we compute =
Since our sample mean (178) is greater than the critical value we calculated (175.34), we reject the null hypothesis in favor of H1, i.e. that: µ > 170 and that it is cost effective to install the new billing system

70. One-Tailed Z Test Example
Does an average box of cereal contain more than 368 grams of cereal? A random sample of 25 boxes showed x = The company has specified  to be 15 grams. Test at the .05 level of significance.
368 gm.

71. One-Tailed Z Test Solution
H0:
Ha:
 =
n =
Critical Value(s):
 = 368
 > 368
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
.05 25 Z
1.645
.05
Reject

72. One-Tailed Z Test Solution
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
Do not reject at  = .05
No evidence average is more than 368

73. One-Tailed Z Test Thinking Challenge
You’re an analyst for Ford. You want to find out if the average miles per gallon of Escorts is less than 32 mpg. Similar models have a standard deviation of 3.8 mpg. You take a sample of 60 Escorts & compute a sample mean of 30.7 mpg. At the .01 level of significance, is there evidence that the miles per gallon is less than 32?

74. One-Tailed Z Test Solution*
H0:
Ha:
 =
n =
Critical Value(s):
 = 32
 < 32
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
.01 60 Z
-2.33
.01
Reject

75. One-Tailed Z Test Solution*
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
Reject at  = .01
There is evidence average is less than 32

76. Observed Significance Levels: p-Values

77. p-Value
Probability of obtaining a test statistic more extreme (or than actual sample value, given H0 is true
Called observed level of significance
Smallest value of  for which H0 can be rejected
Used to make rejection decision
If p-value  , do not reject H0
If p-value < , reject H0

78. Two-Tailed Z Test p-Value Example
Does an average box of cereal contain 368 grams of cereal? A random sample of 25 boxes showed x = The company has specified  to be 15 grams. Find the p-Value.
368 gm.

79. Two-Tailed Z Test p-Value Solution
1.50 
Z value of sample statistic (observed)

80. Two-Tailed Z Test p-Value Solution
p-value is P(Z  or Z  1.50)  Z
1.50
-1.50
1/2 p-Value
From Z table: lookup 1.50
.4332  
Z value of sample statistic (observed)

81. Two-Tailed Z Test p-Value Solution
p-value is P(Z  or Z  1.50) = .1336 
1/2 p-Value
1/2 p-Value
.0668
.0668 Z
-1.50
1.50 
From Z table: lookup 1.50 
Z value of sample statistic

82. Two-Tailed Z Test p-Value Solution
(p-Value = .1336)  ( = .05). Do not reject H0.
Test statistic is in ‘Do not reject’ region
1/2 p-Value = .0668
1/2 p-Value = .0668
Reject H0
Reject H0
1/2  = .025
1/2  = .025 Z
-1.50
1.50

83. One-Tailed Z Test p-Value Example
Does an average box of cereal contain more than 368 grams of cereal? A random sample of 25 boxes showed x = The company has specified  to be 25 grams. Find the p-Value.
368 gm.

84. One-Tailed Z Test p-Value Solution
1.50 
Z value of sample statistic

85. One-Tailed Z Test p-Value Solution
p-Value is P(Z  1.50) 
p-Value Z
1.50 
Use alternative hypothesis to find direction
From Z table: lookup 1.50
.4332  
Z value of sample statistic

86. One-Tailed Z Test p-Value Solution
p-Value is P(Z  1.50) = .0668  Z
1.50
p-Value 
Use alternative hypothesis to find direction
.0668
.4332 
From Z table: lookup 1.50 
Z value of sample statistic

87. One-Tailed Z Test p-Value Solution
(p-Value = .0668)  ( = .05). Do not reject H0.
Test statistic is in ‘Do not reject’ region
p-Value = .0668
Reject H0
 = .05
1.50 Z

88. p-Value Thinking Challenge
You’re an analyst for Ford. You want to find out if the average miles per gallon of Escorts is less than 32 mpg. Similar models have a standard deviation of 3.8 mpg. You take a sample of 60 Escorts & compute a sample mean of 30.7 mpg. What is the value of the observed level of significance (p-Value)? .

89. p-Value Solution*
p-Value is P(Z  -2.65) = p-Value < ( = .01). Reject H0.
p-Value
.004 
Use alternative hypothesis to find direction 
From Z table: lookup 2.65
.4960  Z
-2.65 
Z value of sample statistic

90. Two-Tailed t Test of Mean ( Unknown)

91. One Population Tests One Population Z Test t Test Mean Proportion
(1 & 2
tail)
t Test
Mean
Proportion
Variance c 2
Test

92. t Test for Mean ( Unknown)
Assumptions
Population is normally distributed
If not normal, only slightly skewed & large sample (n  30) taken
Parametric test procedure
t test statistic

93. Two-Tailed t Test Finding Critical t Values
Given: n = 3;  = .10 v t
.10
.05
.025 1
3.078
6.314
12.706 2
1.886
2.920
4.303 3
1.638
2.353
3.182
Critical Values of t Table (Portion)  
df = n - 1 = 2
 /2 = .05  t
2.920
-2.920 

94. Two-Tailed t Test Example
Does an average box of cereal contain 368 grams of cereal? A random sample of 36 boxes had a mean of and a standard deviation of 12 grams. Test at the .05 level of significance.
368 gm.

95. Two-Tailed t Test Solution
 = 368
  368
H0:
Ha:
 =
df =
Critical Value(s):
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
.05
= 35 t
2.030
-2.030
.025
Reject H

96. Two-Tailed t Test Solution
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
Reject at  = .05
There is evidence population average is not 368

97. Two-Tailed t Test Thinking Challenge
You work for the FTC. A manufacturer of detergent claims that the mean weight of detergent is 3.25 lb. You take a random sample of 64 containers. You calculate the sample average to be lb. with a standard deviation of .117 lb. At the .01 level of significance, is the manufacturer correct?
3.25 lb.
Allow students about 10 minutes to finish this.

98. Two-Tailed t Test Solution*
 = 3.25
  3.25
H0:
Ha:
 
df 
Critical Value(s):
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
.01
= 63 t
2.656
-2.656
.005
Reject H

99. Two-Tailed t Test Solution*
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
Do not reject at  = .01
There is no evidence average is not 3.25

100. One-Tailed t Test of Mean ( Unknown)

101. One-Tailed t Test Example
Is the average capacity of batteries at least 140 ampere-hours? A random sample of 20 batteries had a mean of and a standard deviation of Assume a normal distribution. Test at the .05 level of significance.

102. One-Tailed t Test Solution
H0:
Ha:
 =
df =
Critical Value(s):
 = 140
 < 140
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
.05
= 19 t
-1.729
.05
Reject H0

103. One-Tailed t Test Solution
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
Reject at  = .05
There is evidence population average is less than 140

104. One-Tailed t Test Thinking Challenge
You’re a marketing analyst for Wal-Mart. Wal-Mart had teddy bears on sale last week. The weekly sales ($ 00) of bears sold in 10 stores was: At the .05 level of significance, is there evidence that the average bear sales per store is more than 5 ($ 00)?
Assume that the population is normally distributed.
Allow students about 10 minutes to solve this.

105. One-Tailed t Test Solution*
H0:
Ha:
 =
df =
Critical Value(s):
 = 5
 > 5
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
.05
= 9
Note: More than 5 have been sold (6.4), but not enough to be significant. t
1.833
.05
Reject H0

106. One-Tailed t Test Solution*
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
Note: More than 5 have been sold (6.4), but not enough to be significant.
Do not reject at  = .05
There is no evidence average is more than 5

107. Summary of One- and Two-Tail Tests…
One-Tail Test
(left tail)
Two-Tail Test
(right tail)

108. Z Test of Proportion

109. Data Types
Data
Quantitative
Qualitative
Continuous
Discrete

110. Qualitative Data
Qualitative random variables yield responses that classify
e.g., Gender (male, female)
Measurement reflects number in category
Nominal or ordinal scale
Examples
Do you own savings bonds?
Do you live on-campus or off-campus?

111. Proportions Involve qualitative variables
Fraction or percentage of population in a category
If two qualitative outcomes, binomial distribution
Possess or don’t possess characteristic
4. Sample Proportion (p) ^

112. Sampling Distribution of Proportion
Approximated by Normal Distribution
Excludes 0 or n
Mean
Standard Error
Sampling Distribution ^
P(P ) .3 .2 .1 ^ .0 P .0 .2 .4 .6 .8
1.0
where p0 = Population Proportion

113. Standardizing Sampling Distribution of Proportion^       ( ) 1
Sampling Distribution
Standardized Normal Distribution   Z
= 0  z 
= 1 P ^ 

114. One Population Tests One Population Z Test t Test Mean Proportion
(1 & 2
tail)
t Test
Mean
Proportion
Variance c 2
Test

115. One-Sample Z Test for Proportion
1. Assumptions
Random sample selected from a binomial population
Normal approximation can be used if
2. Z-test statistic for proportion
Hypothesized population proportion

116. One-Proportion Z Test Example
The present packaging system produces 10% defective cereal boxes. Using a new system, a random sample of 200 boxes had11 defects. Does the new system produce fewer defects? Test at the .05 level of significance.

117. One-Proportion Z Test Solution
H0:
Ha:
 =
n =
Critical Value(s):
p = .10
p < .10
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
.05
200 Z
-1.645
.05
Reject H0

118. One-Proportion Z Test Solution
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
Reject at  = .05
There is evidence new system < 10% defective

119. One-Proportion Z Test Thinking Challenge
You’re an accounting manager. A year-end audit showed 4% of transactions had errors. You implement new procedures. A random sample of 500 transactions had 25 errors. Has the proportion of incorrect transactions changed at the .05 level of significance?

120. One-Proportion Z Test Solution*
H0:
Ha:
 =
n =
Critical Value(s):
p = .04
p  .04
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
.05
500 Z
1.96
-1.96
.025
Reject H

121. One-Proportion Z Test Solution*
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
Do not reject at  = .05
There is evidence proportion is not 4%

122. Calculating Type II Error Probabilities

123. Power of Test Probability of rejecting false H0 Designated 1 - 
Correct decision
Designated 1 - 
Used in determining test adequacy
Affected by
True value of population parameter
Significance level 
Standard deviation & sample size n

124.  Finding Power Step 1  X  = 368 Reject H0 Do Not
= 368
Reject H0
Do Not
Hypothesis: H0: 0  368 Ha: 0 < 368
 = .05 
Draw

125.    Finding Power Steps 2 & 3  X  1-  = 360a
= 360
‘True’ Situation: a = 360 (Ha)  
Draw
Specify 
1-
= 368
Reject H0
Do Not
Hypothesis: H0: 0  368 Ha: 0 < 368
 = .05 

126.     Finding Power Step 4  X 1- 363.065  = 360a
= 360
‘True’ Situation: a = 360 (Ha)  
Draw
Specify
1-
= 368
Reject H0
Do Not
Hypothesis: H0: 0  368 Ha: 0 < 368
 = .05 

127.      Finding Power Step 5  X  X  = 368 Reject H0 Do Not
= 368
Reject H0
Do Not
Hypothesis: H0: 0  368 Ha: 0 < 368
 = .05 
Draw 
‘True’ Situation: a = 360 (Ha)
Draw
 = .154   
1- =.846
Specify
Z Table 
= 360  X a

128. Effects on β of Changing α
Decreasing the significance level α, increases the value of β and vice versa.
Consider this diagram again. Shifting the critical value line to the right (to decrease α) will mean a larger area under the lower curve for β… (and vice versa)

129. Probability of a Type II Error
It is important that that we understand the relationship between Type I and Type II errors; that is, how the probability of a Type II error is calculated and its interpretation.
Recall Example 11.1…
H0: µ = 170
H1: µ > 170
At a significance level of 5% we rejected H0 in favor of H1 since our sample mean (178) was greater than the critical value of (175.34).

130. Probability of a Type II Error β
A Type II error occurs when a false null hypothesis is not rejected.
In example 11.1, this means that if is less than (our critical value) we will not reject our null hypothesis, which means that we will not install the new billing system.
Thus, we can see that:
β = P( < given that the null hypothesis is false)

131. Example 11.1 (revisited)
β = P( < given that the null hypothesis is false)
The condition only tells us that the mean ≠ 170. We need to compute β for some new value of µ. For example, suppose that if the mean account balance is $180 the new billing system will be so profitable that we would hate to lose the opportunity to install it.
β = P( < , given that µ = 180), thus…

132. Our original hypothesis…
Example 11.1 (revisited)
Our original hypothesis…
our new assumpation…

133. Effects on β of Changing α
Decreasing the significance level α, increases the value of β and vice versa. Change α to .01 in Example 11.1.
Stage 1: Rejection region

134. Effects on β of Changing α
Stage 2 : Probability of a Type II error

135. Effects on β of Changing α
Decreasing the significance level α, increases the value of β and vice versa.
Consider this diagram again. Shifting the critical value line to the right (to decrease α) will mean a larger area under the lower curve for β… (and vice versa)

136. Judging the Test
A statistical test of hypothesis is effectively defined by the significance level (α) and the sample size (n), both of which are selected by the statistics practitioner.
Therefore, if the probability of a Type II error (β) is judged to be too large, we can reduce it by
Increasing α,
and/or
increasing the sample size, n.

137. Judging the Test
For example, suppose we increased n from a sample size of 400 account balances to 1,000 in Example 11.1.
Stage 1: Rejection region

138. Judging the Test
Stage 2: Probability of a Type II error

139. Judging the Test
A statistical test of hypothesis is effectively defined by the significance level (α) and the sample size (n), both of which are selected by the statistics practitioner.
Therefore, if the probability of a Type II error (β) is judged to be too large, we can reduce it by
Increasing α,
and/or
increasing the sample size, n.

140. Judging the Test
For example, suppose we increased n from a sample size of 400 account balances to 1,000 in Example 11.1.
Stage 1: Rejection region

141. Judging the Test
Stage 2: Probability of a Type II error

142. Compare β at n=400 and n=1,000…
175.35
n=400
By increasing the sample size we reduce the probability of a Type II error:
173.38
n=1,000

143. Power Curves H0:  0 H0:  0 H0:  =0 Power Power
Possible True Values for a
Possible True Values for a
H0:  =0
Power
 = 368 in Example
Possible True Values for a

144. Chi-Square (2) Test of Variance

145. One Population Tests One Population Z Test t Test Mean Proportion
(1 & 2
tail)
t Test
Mean
Proportion
Variance c 2
Test

146. Chi-Square (2) Test for Variance
Tests one population variance or standard deviation
Assumes population is approximately normally distributed
Null hypothesis is H0: 2 = 02
4. Test statistic
Hypothesized pop. variance
Sample variance   2 1)    (n S

147. Chi-Square (2) Distribution
Select simple random
Population
sample, size n.
Sampling Distributions
Compute s 2
for Different Sample s
Sizes
The sampling distribution is a function of the sample sizes upon which the sample variances are based.
Hint: Recall the formula for variance!
s2 = (x -x)2/(n-1) m
Compute c 2 =
(n-1)s 2 / s 2 1 2 3 c 2
Astronomical number of c 2
values 65

148. Finding Critical Value Example
What is the critical 2 value given: Ha: 2 > 0.7 n = 3  =.05? c 2
Upper Tail Area DF
.995 …
.95
.05 1
...
0.004
3.841
0.010
0.103
5.991
2 Table (Portion)
Reject
 = .05
df = n - 1 = 2
5.991 26

149. Finding Critical Value Example
What is the critical 2 value given: Ha: 2 < 0.7 n = 3  =.05?
What do you do if the rejection region is on the left? 26

150. Finding Critical Value Example
What is the critical 2 value given: Ha: 2 < 0.7 n = 3  =.05? c 2
Upper Tail Area DF
.995 …
.95
.05 1
...
0.004
3.841
0.010
0.103
5.991
2 Table (Portion)
Upper Tail Area for Lower Critical Value = = .95
 = .05
Reject H0
df = n - 1 = 2
.103 26

151. Chi-Square (2) Test Example
Is the variation in boxes of cereal, measured by the variance, equal to 15 grams? A random sample of 25 boxes had a standard deviation of 17.7 grams. Test at the .05 level of significance.

152. Chi-Square (2) Test Solution
Ha:
 =
df =
Critical Value(s):
2 = 15
2  15
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
.05
= 24  2
 /2 = .025
39.364
12.401

153. Chi-Square (2) Test Solution
Test Statistic:
Decision:
Conclusion:
= 33.42
Do not reject at  = .05
There is no evidence 2 is not 15

154. Conclusion Distinguished Types of Hypotheses
Described Hypothesis Testing Process
Explained p-Value Concept
Solved Hypothesis Testing Problems Based on a Single Sample
Explained Power of a Test
As a result of this class, you will be able to ...