Basic Wildland Fire Management

Basic Wildland Fire Management
Water Delivery

Objectives Upon completion of this section, you will be able to: Identify different types of hoses/valves and their application Recognize different types of nozzles Setup a Standard Hose Lay Illustrate 3 multi-pump systems and indicate when each would be used Demonstrate how to start a Mark3 pump Name 3 engine/pump unit problems when troubleshooting Mark3 Describe 4 nozzling techniques Use Pump Equation to calculate nozzle pressure

Mark3 Pump There are 2 types of pump engines commonly used to power portable fire pumps: two‑cycle engines and four‑cycle engines. Two‑cycle Engine. Two‑cycle engines require ‘mixed’ gas (i.e. pump is fuelled and lubricated by a gas and oil mixture). Although different engines require different gas to oil ratios (e.g. 32:1 or 16:1), the suggested ratio for all two‑cycle pump engines is 24:1. Since lubrication of its parts is from the oil in the fuel, two‑cycle engines are able to operate in any position without ‘starving’ the engine of lubricant. Four‑cycle Engine. Four‑cycle engines require straight gas (i.e. pump is fuelled with gas and a crankcase is filled with oil). Pump operators should make sure only straight gas is used and the oil level is checked before starting any four-cycle engine. If the pump's crankcase is allowed to run low or engine isn’t operated in level position, the engine’s internal parts could be ‘starved’ of lubricant. BB4 is example of 4-cycle engine used in fire operations Mark3 most commonly used 2-cycle engine High pressure – medium volume pump Capable of delivering effective nozzle pressure (i.e. 45psi) at 2400ft over rolling terrain 55lb External 5gal tank, which lasts about 4hr

Shindawa25 Pump Shindawa25 commonly used in mountains where water supply is limited 2-cycle engine Low pressure – low volume pump Commonly used in conjunction with Stilwell Flyer 13lb Integral tank, which lasts about 1.5hr

Floto Pump Floto 2-cycle engine High pressure – low volume pump Can draft in 6in of water (i.e. doesn’t require suction hose, etc.) Must be anchored to shore Muffler can be quite hot, so if used in pumpkin ensure pump is anchored in middle of reservoir 44lb Integral tank, which last about 4hr

Hose Suction Hose Vibrator Hose Discharge Hose ‘inch-and-a-half’ ‘big inch’ ‘Econoflo’ A-Hose B-Hose Firefighters should be familiar with the different types of hose and their application. Suction Hose. Suction hose is used between the water source and pump intake. It has reinforced walls that prevent inward collapse under external pressure. A foot valve is attached to the male suction hose coupling. When connecting a suction hose to the pump intake, ensure the gasket is in good condition and tighten all fittings with a wrench to prevent air leaks. Air pockets exploding at the nozzle are a sign of air leaks on the suction side. Vibrator Hose. A vibrator hose is a 3m length of lined 1.5in hose. Since it contacts the ground closest to the pump and is subject to high vibration and operating pressures, it’s usually double-jacketed for extra strength. Discharge Hose. Discharge hoses (i.e. used on discharge side of the pump) are normally supplied in 100ft lengths and fitted with quick‑connect couplings. Parks Canada uses 3 sizes of discharge hose: 1.5in referred to as ‘inch‑and‑a‑half’ 1in with 1.5in couplings referred to as ‘big inch’ 5/8in, sometimes comes in 3/4in size, referred to as ‘Econoflo’ A-Hose. A-Hose is non-percolating lined hose. It’s used between the pump and the fire’s edge since it’s better able to withstand high pressures, provides less pressure loss due to friction, and lacks fire‑resistant qualities. A-Hose is coupled one length to another and end-folded into hose boxes (i.e. 4 lengths per box), which is deployed in a continuous straight line. It’s visibly distinguished from B-Hose by a single coupling at the top of the hose box. B-Hose. B-Hose is percolating hose designed to weep or hose that has more wear and small leaks, etc. It’s used on the fireline where weeping hose is less likely to burn and pressure loss due to friction is less of an issue. B-Hose is coupled end-to-end and linked in loops before being end-folded into hose boxes (i.e. 4 lengths per box), which is deployed doubled-over every 50ft (i.e. requires you to connect couplings to tree, etc. every 50ft). It’s visibly distinguished from A-Hose by a set of two couplings at top of the hose box. When moving hose around or off the fireline, hose lengths are uncoupled, drained and temporarily rolled. These rolls should be tight and well secured so that hose can be easily carried to other locations. Melon Roll. Begin by folding hose about 30-cm. Squeezing the hose tight, wrap the hose lengthwise up the folded portion, attempting to make a firm base on which to begin rolling the hose lengthwise. Lay the hose out flat with no kinks on a sloping piece of ground. Start at the uphill end to ensure all water is drained from hose and start folding the hose end‑over‑end along itself. Give the melon a quarter‑turn with each fold to help secure the ends of the melon. Continue this procedure to the end of the hose and tie off the melon with a double wrap. Tuck the loose end under the wrap securely. Pressurized hose should be protected from abrasion. Hose lengths close to the pump, where pressure and vibration are highest, should be protected from contact with stones jagged sticks or other sharp objects. Never drag hose behind vehicles or heavy equipment. Where a hose lies across a road, the hose should be protected with boards on both sides or by laying the hose in a small trench. Chemical deterioration from the high alkaline content of wood ash is avoided by washing hose after use. Hoses should be tested prior to washing. Testing is done with a Mark3 pump at full throttle and the nozzle shut off about 30s, then watching for leaks. Hose is sorted according to its quality and damaged sections are discarded. Mildew deterioration will occur if hose is not thoroughly dried after use. Hose deterioration can also result from contact with oils, grease, rust and direct sunlight.

Hose Care & Maintenance
Basic Wildland Fire Management Hose Care & Maintenance Melon Roll Protect from abrasion Protect from chemicals Protect from mildew When moving hose around or off the fireline, hose lengths are uncoupled, drained and temporarily rolled. These rolls should be tight and well secured so that hose can be easily carried to other locations. Melon Roll. Begin by folding hose about 30-cm. Squeezing the hose tight, wrap the hose lengthwise up the folded portion, attempting to make a firm base on which to begin rolling the hose lengthwise. Lay the hose out flat with no kinks on a sloping piece of ground. Start at the uphill end to ensure all water is drained from hose and start folding the hose end‑over‑end along itself. Give the melon a quarter‑turn with each fold to help secure the ends of the melon. Continue this procedure to the end of the hose and tie off the melon with a double wrap. Tuck the loose end under the wrap securely. Pressurized hose should be protected from abrasion. Hose lengths close to the pump, where pressure and vibration are highest, should be protected from contact with stones jagged sticks or other sharp objects. Never drag hose behind vehicles or heavy equipment. Where a hose lies across a road, the hose should be protected with boards on both sides or by laying the hose in a small trench. Chemical deterioration from the high alkaline content of wood ash is avoided by washing hose after use. Hoses should be tested prior to washing. Testing is done with a Mark3 pump at full throttle and the nozzle shut off about 30s, then watching for leaks. Hose is sorted according to its quality and damaged sections are discarded. Mildew deterioration will occur if hose is not thoroughly dried after use. Hose deterioration can also result from contact with oils, grease, rust and direct sunlight.

Nozzles Forestry Nozzle Hansen Nozzle Fog Nozzle Econoflo Nozzle A wildland firefighting water delivery system is only as good as the nozzle person or team applying the water. There are 2 types of nozzles that can be used: stream nozzles and fog nozzles. The principles of a stream are volume, range and velocity. By decreasing the size of the discharge opening, you increase nozzle pressure and stream velocity but decrease volume delivered. Balancing volume and pressure rather than maximizing nozzle pressure best obtains maximum distance. Some uses for stream nozzles are: To knock down hot fire edge so firefighters can get in closer To construct fire guards hydraulically To aid in digging out ground fires To penetrate into heavy concentrations of fuels (e.g. slash piles) Fog nozzles come in various sizes and makes, and are capable of producing several different spray patterns depending on the adjustments made to the discharge opening. They can also produce a limited stream pattern; however, distance and effectiveness is dependent on the type and make of nozzle used. Some uses of fog nozzles are: To cool down and smother fire on low candling trees, low snags and stumps on or near the fire’s edge To wet down fuels by blanketing fuel in water droplets, which slows advance of fire and changes its intensity To clear out smoke by precipitating out carbon particles as well as drive smoke ahead Forestry Nozzle. The Forestry nozzle is a straight nozzle that comes with 2 different sized nozzle heads (i.e. total of 3 nozzle sizes). It’s used to deliver a straight stream of water. Hansen Nozzle. The Hansen nozzle is an adjustable stream nozzle (e.g. Hansen 4in nozzle has 1/8in, 3/16in, 1/4in and 5/16in aperture settings). An ‘in‑between’ aperture selection will create a spray stream. Fog Nozzle. The Fog nozzle generates an adjustable fog spray for cooling down areas of intense heat and has shut-off capability. Econoline Nozzle. The Econoflo nozzle is simply a small garden type nozzle. It has screw-on couplings.

Valves Gated Wye Back Check Valve Water Thief Proper use and placement of valves is critical to the establishment of a safe and effective water delivery system. Foot Valve. The foot valve is a one-way value with a debris strainer that fits onto the male suction hose coupling. It prevents water from draining out of the pump chamber and keeps debris from entering it. Back Check Valve. The back check valve is a one‑way valve used inline to stop back pressure from blowing the suction hose off the pump intake when the pump is shut down and to prevent any foam solution in the system from entering the water source. It should be used whenever pumping in hilly terrain. Gated Wye. The gated wye is a three-way valve used above a back check valve to bleed-off back pressure and/or anywhere you want to split a single hose line into 2 separate lines. Water Thief. The water thief is a quick‑coupled inline tee that has a 5/8in male threaded outlet for a lateral hose lay using Econoflo.

Portable Reservoir Self-supporting tanks Frame tanks Stilwell Flyers Mobile Tankers Portable reservoirs are used by wildland firefighters as an emergency water reservoir or readily available water source on the fireline. Because reservoirs need to be continuously refilled by mobile tankers, etc. the cost of the water can be expensive; for that reason, it must be used wisely. There are several types of portable reservoirs used by wildland firefighters. However, all reservoirs have similar set up concerns. Reservoirs should be setup on relatively flat ground that has been cleared of any debris that may puncture the unit. Ideally, a tarp should be put down. If the reservoir is established on a slope, it should be anchored. Before charging the reservoir with water, you should consider show the unit will fill and drain. Self-supporting Tanks. Self-supporting tanks have a large diameter open top for filling and a unique floatation collar design (i.e. no inflation required). There is no frame or parts to assemble. They have multi-point tie down system for protection from rotor downwash, etc. They can be deployed on slopes up to 7% incline. Self-supporting tanks are sometimes called pumpkins. Pumpkins range from ,000gal. Frame Tanks. Frame tanks consist of a PVC coated nylon bladder with grommets around the rim, which is or roped to a folding metal frame. The result is a square‑shaped swimming pool capable of holding gal of water, which is supplied by mobile tankers, etc. Stilwell Flyers. Stilwell Flyers are helicopter slung containers (i.e. 60gal or 110gal capacity) that enable efficient transportation of firefighting water or potable water to ground crews where no land access is available. Mobile Tankers. A tanker is a specialized truck on which is mounted a tank, fire pump, hose and supplementary equipment (i.e. hand tools, Class A foam, etc.). Slip tanks are 450L tank units that are placed on four-wheel drive pickup trucks. They’re generally equipped with a small fire pump and a 30m hard line hose reel, and other fire suppression equipment. Larger slip tanks can carry up to 12,000L, but must be secured on larger truck frames.

Standard Hose Lay There are a number of water delivery systems that are used on the fireline. The 3 broad categories of water delivery are: single-pump, multi-pump and gravity feed systems. Multi‑pump systems are used when a single pump is no longer capable of providing adequate volume or maintaining a minimum effective nozzle pressure. Where it’s necessary to force water to elevations or distances beyond the capacity of 1 pump a number of methods may be used to overcome these obstacles. The Standard Hose Lay is a single-pump system. It’s the basis for all water delivery on the fireline. It consists of a suction hose, fire pump, vibrator hose, back check valve, gated wye, bleed-off line and discharge hose. The Standard Hose Lay is setup in the following manner. With the pump at the water source, couple the suction hose to the suction inlet and prime the pump. Couple the vibrator hose to the discharge outlet. Connect the back check valve to the other end of this hose. Make sure the back check valve is correctly installed. Connect the gated wye valve to the back check valve. The gated wye allows you to attach the necessary bleed-off line away from the pump. Connect the first length of discharge hose to the other gated wye valve outlet. Always use lined hose for the mainline to the base of the fire. Once the hose lay reaches the fire perimeter, another gated wye can be attached to allow for branch lines around the fire as required. Always use unlined hose around the fire.

Tandem Pump System 2 or more pumps pumping inline and very close together 20% pressure loss at output of Pump B caused by turbulence Used to boost water pressure Pumps operated and serviced at 1 location Tandem Pump System. The tandem pump system describes 2 pumps pumping inline and very close together. It’s used to boost water pressure. Pump A’s output pressure is added to 80% of Pump B’s output pressure. For example, 2 Mark3 pumps at 250psi will supply about 450psi when hooked together in tandem. However, if either pump fails the system won’t deliver water to the fire. A tandem pump system is setup in the following manner. Pump A (i.e. pump at the water source) and Pump B are connected using the tandem coupler, which adapts a length of vibrator hose into a suction hose. The discharge pressure of Pump A is fed directly into the intake of Pump B. The most powerful pump must be used as Pump A and it’s started first, which primes Pump B and ensures it’ll have adequate water supply. If the 2 pumps are of equal power, run Pump B at a slightly lower power setting. There’s about 20% total pressure loss at the output of Pump B due to turbulence and friction. High pressures are generated on the discharge side of Pump B, so use ‘new’ lined hose near the pumps. Firefighters can expect to burst more hose when using a tandem pump system.

Parallel Pump System 2 pumps side-by-side pumping into same line Used to ensure consistent water supply if pump failure Pumps operated and serviced at 1 location Parallel Pump System. The parallel pump system uses 2 complete pump setups that feed into the same line at some point between the pumps and the fire, usually after 1-2 hose lengths. Parallel means that the pumps are operating side-by-side. It’s used primarily as a precaution against pump failure since neither the volume nor pressure is greatly increased by running pumps together. If 1 pump fails, the system will still provide water up the line though at decreased pressure. What’s more, pumps can be operated and serviced at one easily accessed location. A parallel pump system is setup in the following manner. Using a gated wye and two back check valves channeling both outputs into one discharge hose connects Pump A and Pump B. The need for two back check valves is required where each line pumps into the wye. This is due to the fact that pump pressure from one pump can create backpressure into the other pump and if one pump fails, the pressure from the other pump will damage the pump head of that pump. More commonly seen in flat terrain where there are long distances between pump and nozzle.

Relay Pump System Relay Pump System. The relay pump system describes a system whereby water is moved to a portable reservoir, generally where a single-pump system has exhausted its pressure capability, and then water is pumped using another pump setup. If Pump A (i.e. pump at the water source) fails, then water in the portable reservoir ensures consistent water supply at the nozzle. What’s more, the portable reservoir can supply a number of pumps. However, secondary pumps must be operated and serviced at separate locations. This requires multiple pump operators.

Gravity Feed System Gravity feed funnel tied down in moving water with large opening facing upstream 1.5in hose connection The most trouble-free, yet most frequently overlooked water delivery system, is the gravity feed system. There is nothing mechanical to break down, and water flows 24hr every day. However, there must be a suitable water source at least 75ft above the highest part of the fire. Even a small creek will provide a surprising amount of water for fire use. Every foot of drop in elevation will give about 0.5lb pressure at the nozzle. On short drops of less than 200ft the hose line will be partially flattened except at the nozzle end. However, it’s possible to have too much pressure at the nozzle, even when several branch lines are in use. Using larger nozzles or inserting a three-way valve in the line as a bleeder can reduce excessive nozzle pressures. In a gravity feed system, a gravity funnel or sock is tied firmly in place with rope and reinforced with rocks whenever possible. The funnel should be completely submerged. It’s best to choose a location with a drop in the streambed or it may be necessary to build a small dam and sump. Attach the first length of hose and lead it away and directly downhill in a straight course as much as possible. Once the system is operating, it is only necessary to keep the strainer in the funnel free from debris.

Selecting a Pump Site Select level, solid ground as close as possible to water Stake pump as required Place fuel can in berm Ensure bleed-off line well away from pump Consider theft adjacent to roadways A portable fire pump is just one part of the pump system. The pump system includes: (1) pump, (2) fuel, (3) suction hose, (4) tool kit, and (5) discharge hose(s). When traveling to fires or receiving equipment on the fireline you should develop the habit of checking that all parts of the pump system are accounted for. Select level, solid ground, as close as possible to the water source. A well managed will be orderly and clean. The following are considerations when setting up your pump site. Pump is supported off soft/wet ground, and staked/roped as required Fuel can is secure, ideally in a berm Bleed-off line is well away from pump No tools lying on ground Foam used in accordance with established safety and environmental procedures Consider theft adjacent to roadways

Getting Fuel to the Engine
Basic Wildland Fire Management Getting Fuel to the Engine Recommended 24:1 gas to oil mixture Depress ball valve in fuel line to displace air with fuel Ensure fittings are clean Connect fuel line with push and turn motion Open air vent on fuel can Use priming bulb until fuel observed in clear plastic line The Mark3 is a two-cycle engine that uses mixed gasoline (i.e. 24:1 gas to oil). Using less than the recommended proportion of oil in the mixed gas won’t provide adequate lubrication to the engine causing the engine to overheat and excessive wear. Using more than the recommended proportion of oil in the mixed gas will cause excessive carbon deposits in the engine and on the spark plug. Fouled spark plugs cause poor engine ignition and reduce pump performance. Excessive amounts of exhaust smoke are a symptom of too much oil in the mixed gas. A flexible fuel line with a quick‑connect adapter is attached to the fuel tank or provided in the toolbox. Before attaching the fuel line to the pump, depress the ball valve located inside the quick‑connect fitting on the end of the fuel line. Use a screwdriver from the tool kit (i.e. not a stick that could break off). This allows air in the fuel line to be displaced with fuel and allows you to check and ensure you have fuel flowing. Remove the plastic protective cap from the fuel fitting on the pump. Be certain that there is no dirt or debris in either of the fuel fittings and connect them with a push and turn motion. Open the air vent on top of the fuel tank by turning it counterclockwise. Opening the valve and the vent allows fuel to flow into the fuel line. Squeeze the fuel line-priming bulb until mixed gas is observed moving up the clear plastic fuel line and into the carburetor. Starting Tip. Tilt the pump base slightly so that the air filter/carburetor unit on the pump is directed slightly downwards. This allows any excess fuel to drain out of the carburetor rather than into the cylinder where it can cause flooding and difficult starting.

Getting Water to the Pump
Basic Wildland Fire Management Getting Water to the Pump Ensure foot valve is functioning Ensure gasket is installed and in good condition Attach suction hose to suction inlet Place foot valve under 6in of water and keep it from resting on bottom Pour water into pump chamber Ensure all fittings are wrench tightened Attach discharge hose The Mark3 must be primed before it’ll pump water. When the pump and suction hose are primed with water and the engine is started, water will be discharged from the pump and a vacuum created within the pump chamber and suction hose. As soon as the suctioned water enters the pump chamber it’s compressed and pressurized by the impellers forcing it out the discharge outlet. Ensure that the suction hose is free of material that might damage the pump or restrict water flow. If the foot valve is separate from the suction hose attach it to the male suction hose coupling, then tighten it with a wrench. Make sure the one-way valve on the foot valve is functioning. Check that the gasket in the female suction hose coupling is installed and in good condition, then attach the female coupling to the pump suction inlet. Be sure not to cross‑thread this fitting and wrench tighten for an airtight fit. Place the foot valve under at least 6in of water and keep it from resting on the bottom. After connecting the suction hose, the pump is ready to be primed. Pump operators should remove the priming inlet cap and pour water directly into the pump chamber until it’s full. Be very careful not to allow any debris into the pump chamber. Then replace the priming inlet cap and wrench tightened. If any part of the suction hose is higher than the top of the pump chamber, the pump will start but and continually cut out. Attach the vibrator hose to the discharge outlet and proceed with the rest of the standard hose lay. Leave about 6ft of slack in the first length of discharge hose before proceeding to the fire. This will allow the pump to be moved around the site without having to disconnect and pull back the entire hose lay.

Starting the Engine Starting the engine: Cut-out switch pushed in Choke set to START Throttle to START Then quick, short pulls Once engine is running: Choke set to RUN slowly Let warm-up for 3min Throttle set to RUN Starting the engine is a 4 step process involving 3 basic controls: the choke lever, the throttle lever and the starter rope. Check that the cut-out switch is pushed in Close the choke by placing the choke lever in the START (i.e. open) position if the engine is cold Open the choke by placing in RUN (i.e. closed) position if the engine is warm Move the throttle lever to the START/WARM‑UP position Place 1 foot on the base of the pump frame and 1 hand on the spark plug protector (to maintain balance), then grasp the starter rope grip with the other hand and start turning the engine over with quick, steady and short pulls of the starter rope Once the engine is running, you should: Re‑position the choke lever to the RUN position slowly, since pump engines can easily be stalled by rapid changes to the fuel/air mixture entering the engine Allow the engine to warm-up by leaving the throttle in the WARM‑UP position for about 3min (i.e. cooling fins on the cylinder head are hot to the touch) Once the engine is warmed up, open the throttle lever slowly to the RUN position Be sure to signal the nozzle team to ensure they are ready, before running the pump at full power To stop the engine, you should: Gradually reduce the engine to an idle, before placing the throttle in the STOP position Depress the stop switch and hold it in firmly until the engine is completely stopped. If the switch is released before the engine is stopped, there is a chance of backfiring, which can damage the engine. If you don’t intend to restart the pump immediately, the fuel line should be disconnected and the pump allowed to burn up all the fuel remaining in the carburetor (fuel left in the carburetor for a period of time will break down and clog the carburetor0 When shutting down after pumping from salt water, alkaline lakes or using foam concentrates, rinse out the pump chamber by pumping fresh water for 20min at varying rpm. If there is a chance of freezing temperatures overnight, drain the pump chamber and uncouple hose lengths along the hose lay.

Engine Unit Problems Gas Supply Problems: If cracks in clear plastic line, seal with electrical tape If fuel pump isn’t working, secure fuel tank higher than carburetor If carburetor loose, tighten 2 nuts with offset wrench If carburetor clogged, order another unit Air Supply Problems: If air filter clogged, rinse in mixed gas and put oil in filter before reinstalling Cardboard replacement filters are disposable Many pump problems can be fixed in the field. It’s best done by thinking of the pump as an engine unit that is coupled to a water pump unit. After determining which unit’s causing the problem, proceed with specific troubleshooting steps as described below. It’s very important to understand your own limitations and to recognize the time and place for extensive field troubleshooting. A piece of colored flagging tape should be tied on all unserviceable items. This prevents other firefighters from taking the item and trying to use it as well as ensuring that the unserviceable item will be sent from the fire for repairs as soon as possible. Engine failure is generally a result of problems with the gas supply, air supply and/or spark problems. Gas Supply Problems. The first thing you should check is that fuel is reaching the engine. Check that there is gas in the fuel tank, the air supply vent is open, the fuel supply valve is open, and the fuel supply line is not kinked or flattened. Use a blunt tool to depress the ball valve recessed in the end of the quick‑connect fitting and with the fitting held below the level of fuel in the tank, ensure that fuel flows freely out of the fuel line. If there is fuel supply to the engine, you must determine if fuel is reaching the cylinder head. Remove the spark plug and check it for wet or dry condition. If the spark plug is wet with gasoline, proceed immediately with the spark problems outlined below. If the spark plug is dry, pour a very small amount of fuel into the cylinder through the spark plug opening, replace the plug and attempt to start the engine. If the engine starts and stops, fuel is not reaching the cylinder. There are several possible causes for fuel not reaching the cylinder. Clear plastic fuel line that runs vertically from the quick‑connect fitting on the pump frame to the carburetor may be cracked and leaking air. Fuel pump may not be working Carburetor may be loose where it attaches to the intake manifold so that air rather than fuel is taken into the cylinder Carburetor may be clogged with old gas and oil deposits To fix this problem: Use electrical tape to seal leak in fuel line Cut the fuel supply line and attach it onto the carburetor fuel inlet directly to bypass the quick-connect coupling and clear plastic fuel line If pump isn’t working, secure fuel tank slightly higher than the carburetor to allow fuel to gravity feed into carburetor If the carburetor is loose, tighten 2 nuts with special offset wrench provided in tool kit If the carburetor is clogged, you should order another unit Air Supply Problems. During continuous use on the fireline, the engine air filter may become partly clogged and air intake reduced. You’ll notice that discharge pressures are lower and fuel consumption is increased. Clean or replace the air filter, if necessary. Foam sponge filters should be rinsed in mixed gasoline and then put a few drops of mix oil in the filter element before reinstalling it. Cardboard replacement filters are disposable. Be careful not to install air filters incorrectly, which will reduce air intake and pump performance.

Engine Unit Problems Spark Problems: Disconnect fuel supply Remove spark plug Clean spark plug and check spark gap Place spark plug in holder and ground to pump Set throttle and choke to run, then pull starter rope If no spark, replace spark plug If still no spark, check spark plug holder and lead Engine failure is generally a result of problems with the gas supply, air supply and/or spark problems. Gas Supply Problems. The first thing you should check is that fuel is reaching the engine. Check that there is gas in the fuel tank, the air supply vent is open, the fuel supply valve is open, and the fuel supply line is not kinked or flattened. Use a blunt tool to depress the ball valve recessed in the end of the quick‑connect fitting and with the fitting held below the level of fuel in the tank, ensure that fuel flows freely out of the fuel line. If there is fuel supply to the engine, you must determine if fuel is reaching the cylinder head. Remove the spark plug and check it for wet or dry condition. If the spark plug is wet with gasoline, proceed immediately with the spark problems outlined below. If the spark plug is dry, pour a very small amount of fuel into the cylinder through the spark plug opening, replace the plug and attempt to start the engine. If the engine starts and stops, fuel is not reaching the cylinder. There are several possible causes for fuel not reaching the cylinder. Clear plastic fuel line that runs vertically from the quick‑connect fitting on the pump frame to the carburetor may be cracked and leaking air. Fuel pump may not be working Carburetor may be loose where it attaches to the intake manifold so that air rather than fuel is taken into the cylinder Carburetor may be clogged with old gas and oil deposits To fix this problem: Use electrical tape to seal leak in fuel line Cut the fuel supply line and attach it onto the carburetor fuel inlet directly to bypass the quick-connect coupling and clear plastic fuel line If pump isn’t working, secure fuel tank slightly higher than the carburetor to allow fuel to gravity feed into carburetor If the carburetor is loose, tighten 2 nuts with special offset wrench provided in tool kit If the carburetor is clogged, you should order another unit Air Supply Problems. During continuous use on the fireline, the engine air filter may become partly clogged and air intake reduced. You’ll notice that discharge pressures are lower and fuel consumption is increased. Clean or replace the air filter, if necessary. Foam sponge filters should be rinsed in mixed gasoline and then put a few drops of mix oil in the filter element before reinstalling it. Cardboard replacement filters are disposable. Be careful not to install air filters incorrectly, which will reduce air intake and pump performance. Spark Problems. Flooding occurs when fuel continues to be pumped into the cylinder without ignition. To help avoid flooding, tilt the pump base slightly so that the air filter/carburetor unit on the pump is pointed slightly downwards. This allows any excess fuel to drain out of the carburetor through the air filter rather than into the cylinder. Flooding can be common with some pumps and you should be capable of performing the following procedure very quickly. It may be necessary to perform this procedure several times before the engine starts. Disconnect fuel supply line at the quick-connect Remove spark plug and then turn pump upside down to drain excess fuel through the spark plug opening Clean and dry spark plug, and ensure electrode gap clearance is about matchbook cover thickness (i.e. 0.4mm) Place spark plug in its rubber holder and ground against steel component of pump, which is done to prevent damaging the ignition system during following test for spark condition Set throttle and choke to RUN, which allows maximum airflow into the engine Pull starter cord rapidly until all the excess fuel in the cylinder has been blown out the spark plug opening If no spark is visible, check that the cut-out switch is pushed in fully If there’s still no spark, replace the spark plug If there’s still no spark, ensure spark plug holder and high-tension lead that connects spark plug to the ignition system are dry and properly connected (i.e. repair any obvious damage using electrical tape) If the starter rope breaks or if the rewind mechanism fails, unbolt the starter cover (i.e. 4 bolts) exposing a conventional slotted starter pulley so that the operator can start the engine manually. Ensure the direction of pull is clockwise.

Pump Unit Problems Suction Problems: Clean foot valve and place rocks under/over valve Ensure foot valve isn’t jammed with stick, etc. Wrench tighten all fittings Pump Seized: Undo pump clamp and clear any physical blockages Pump Overheating: Shutdown pump immediately and wait until pump has cooled There are a number of common problems specific to the pump end of the Mark3. Suction problems Pump seized Pump overheating Suction Problems. With no load on the engine (i.e. pump loses prime) the engine revs and the cut‑out switch is activated, stopping the engine. Before you re‑start the engine it’s important to check for the cause of the stoppage, fix the problem (e.g. re‑prime the pump), reset the cut‑out switch by pushing it in and finally re‑start the engine. There are several possible causes for the engine losing prime. Foot valve not under 6in of water because suction hose lifted in the water or water source is depleted Foot valve strainer screen clogged with debris, which restricts flow of water Foot valve hose one-way valve inoperable (e.g. blocked by stick), which allows water to flow out of the suction hose Suction hose to suction inlet connection or priming cap inlet cap connection isn’t airtight To fix these problems: Clean the foot valve strainer and re‑position the foot valve to prevent it happening again (e.g. place rocks under and over the foot valve, tie the suction hose to a stake or place foot valve in a bucket or toolbox) Check the foot valve itself to make sure it’s not jammed by a stick or in some other way inoperable Check the connection for cross-threading and gasket presence/condition, grease the threads with pump grease in tool box and wrench‑tighten all fittings Pump Seized. Occasionally pumps will seize. You’ll be unable to pull the starter cord but won’t know if it’s the engine or the pump unit that has seized. Undo the pump clamp that holds the pump head to the engine head and separate the halves to determine which side is seized. Other than attempting to clear any physical blockages there is little that can be done in the field. When joining the pump head to the engine head, never use excessive force. If more than finger pressure is required to close the clamp, the pump and engine units aren’t properly lined up. The clamp adjustment knob may require tweaking. Pump Overheating. The pump head has impellers that continue to spin at high speeds when water flow is shut down at the nozzle. It’s possible for the water in the pump chamber to become very hot when no water leaves a pump unit that’s operating at full power for 10min or more. If this condition is detected, the pump should be shutdown immediately with no repairs attempted until the pump chamber has cooled down. Serious injury (scalds and burns) can result if the pump chamber is opened when still hot.

Water Delivery Crew Pump Operator responsible for operation and maintenance of pump Hose Layer establishes hose lay Hose Handler ensures nozzle person drags no more than 10ft of line Nozzle Person The water delivery crew consists of a pump operator, hose layer, hose handler and nozzle person. The pump operator is responsible for the operation and maintenance of the fire pump so as to ensure a consistent water supply at the nozzle. The hose layer pack hose up to the fire’s edge and establishes a progressive hose lay ahead of the nozzle person. Charged 1.5in hose is heavy and difficult to maneuver, so the hose handler works to ensure the nozzle person only has to drag about 10ft of hose forward as the fire’s edge is cooled down. The hose handler keeps the hose free of burning or sharp surfaces, and keeps it free of kinks. Hose handlers should carry a strangler to be able to break the hose line to connect to another line, change nozzles, etc. The nozzle person handles the nozzle.

Hand Signals for Water Use
Basic Wildland Fire Management Hand Signals for Water Use All members of the water delivery crew should be familiar with common hand signals for water use to ensure an effective and consistent water supply.

Standard Hose Lay Lay A-Hose to fire’s edge Lay ‘horseshoes’ of B-Hose every 50ft First Pass to slow spread (i.e. 2ft from edge) Back Pass to stop spread (i.e. 10ft from edge) Hose lay around fingers Hose lay around bays Begin the hose lay at the pump. Tie the first length of A-Hose to a tree, etc. The hose pack is packed to the fire’s edge with hose feeding out as firefighter walks. B-Hose is used along the fire’s edge. Hook the first set of couplings around a tree, etc. The hose pack is moved forward adjacent to the fire perimeter with hose feeding out as the firefighter walks. When the next coupling set comes out of the top of the hose pack, the firefighter stops, uncouples from the bight of the ’horseshoe’ of hose on the ground. The hose pack is then packed forward on fire line another 50ft (i.e. ½ hose length). The couplings are connected to a tree, etc. and the process is repeated. By progressively laying ’horseshoes’ of hose, 50ft apart along the fireline ahead of the nozzle team, the nozzle team can work up the fireline more efficiently. If B-Hose is unavailable, A-Hose can be deployed progressively by having the hose layer double back to the first fitting when half a hose length is out of the hose pack. When using the progressive hose lay ahead of the nozzle team, rapidly spreading fire can burn up hose before the nozzle team gets to it, so ensure that the hose lay allows for fire spread. First Pass. The objective of the first pass is to slow or stop fire spread, so the nozzle team focuses on cooling hotspots, knocking down vertical fire spread and creating 2ft wide wet line around the fire. The nozzle team starts from an anchor point and works towards the head of the fire, normally along the hottest flank. The water stream is directed parallel to the fire’s edge as much as possible. However, caution must be taken to ensure embers are not ricocheted out of the fire into unburned fuels. The water stream may be directed away from the fire’s edge to cool hotspots or candling trees burning just inside the fire area. By prioritizing control of the fire along the fire edge, the nozzle team will be able to make rapid forward progress and arrive quickly at the head of the fire where the majority of fire activity is occurring. Be careful that a rapid first pass does not leave an ineffective fireline. If the fire restarts and burns through the hose lay the nozzle team may find themselves at the head of the fire with no water. Two nozzle teams can conduct the first pass. One on each flank working towards the head in a pincer action or by one nozzle team in an encircling action working towards the head along the hottest flank first, controlling the head and working back to the anchor point along the cooler flank last. When the first pass is completed, a hose lay will be connected around the entire fire perimeter. Back Pass. The objective of the back pass is to stop all fire spread, so the nozzle team creates a 10-15ft wide wet line. The nozzle team starts working back towards the anchor point doubling the hose over as they go. As they arrive at the end of one hose length they will uncouple the hose length and stretch it back out along the fire’s edge. When the nozzle team arrives at the anchor point, a complete hose lay should exist around the fire perimeter. If there’s a flare-up, the nozzle team charges the hose lay from the anchor point and breaks the hose line where the flare-up is occurring. After the completion of the back pass, the fire should be under control and mop-up can start. Hose Lay around Fingers. The water delivery crew attempts to cover the longest fire front with the shortest hose length possible. To avoid needlessly working hose lays around fingers along the fire perimeter the following procedure is recommended. It should only be used if it doesn’t compromise crew safety. Work to the tip of finger Pull back to base of finger and pull hose to other side of finger Work up the other side of the finger to tip Back pass to base and continue along fire perimeter Hose Lay around Bays. A similar problem is encountered in dealing with bays along the fire perimeter. To avoid needlessly working hose lays into bays the following procedure is recommended. That being said, it should only be used if it doesn’t compromise crew safety. Work to the tip of bay Back pass to mouth of bay and pull hose to other side of bay Work to the tip of bay on the other side Back pass to mouth of bay and continue along fire perimeter

Progressive Hose Lay Gated wyes inserted in main line at intervals Lateral lines run from wyes to fire’s edge Used to move quickly up flanks of rapidly spreading fire The progressive hose lay is a containment tactic used to quickly and effectively to move a hose lay up the flank(s) of a large, rapidly spreading fire. It’s a hose lay in which gated wyes are inserted in the main line at intervals and lateral lines are run from the wyes to the fire edge, thus permitting continuous application of water during extension of the lay.

Hotspotting Method of direct attack used to check spread and intensity of fire where it’s most likely to escape Used when it can be carried out with little or no danger to firefighters Chance of hose lays been burned up and/or escape routes being cut off Hot spotting is a method of direct attack used to check the spread and intensity of a fire at those points that exhibit the most rapid spread or that otherwise pose threat to control the situation. This is in contrast to systematically working all parts of the fire at the same time, or progressively in a step-by-step manner. The present use of hot spotting is most common on initial action on small fires where the intensity is such that direct attack can be carried out with little or no danger to the firefighters. The intent of hot spotting is to hold the fire or bring it under control in the shortest time with least effort. However, caution must be exercised by the nozzle team as hose lays can be burned up and escape routes cut off by rapid fire spread.

Nozzling Techniques Jet Stream Method Extends reach of water Hydraulic control line Fog Stream Method Smother and cools fire Puddling Method Dig out duff and saturate Soaking Method Wet line ahead of fire The appropriate nozzling technique will depend on the type of fire you’re fighting. It’s not the amount of water used that has the greatest impact on a fire, it’s the manner in which it’s applied. There are a number of different techniques, which include jet stream, fog stream, puddling and soaking. Jet Stream Method. The Jet Stream method is used to extend the reach of the water stream or to penetrate and saturate burning fuels. When using the jet stream it’s possible to spread embers and sparks into adjacent fuels. Caution should be exercised and whenever possible spray towards the black. With the jet stream it’s possible to build a hydraulic fireline. To construct hydraulic a fireline the nozzle person applies the jet stream perpendicular to the fire edge. Fireline is constructed quickly as the duff layer is torn up, moistened, cooled and thrown back into the fire. Hydraulic fireline is not as secure as constructed fireline. Firefighters using hand tools should always follow up and construct fireline to mineral soil. Fog Stream Method. The Fog Stream method is used to cover more of the burn with water. It creates a blanket of water droplets, which smother and cools the fire. Water droplets have more surface area than a solid stream and can absorb more heat. What’s more, they tend to wrap around fuels rather than ricocheting off as a jet stream does. Because fog nozzles have shut‑off capability this method allows firefighters to conserve water. Puddling Method. The Puddling method involves digging out duff and rotten logs and saturating them with water. Firefighters use this procedure during mop-up when enough water is available. For maximum effectiveness, a nozzle person and a firefighter with a hand tool will work as a team. Soaking Method. The Soaking method describes firefighters creating a wet line (i.e. saturating fuels) ahead of an advancing fire. This method is often used in parallel attack. When creating your wet line, ensure you don’t soak fuels identified for burn out.

Pump Equation Pump equation Can tell you:
Basic Wildland Fire Management Pump Equation Pump equation Pump Pressure = Nozzle Pressure + Head + Friction Loss Can tell you: How far will my pump push water? How much pump pressure do I need? All firefighters working with portable pumps should understand the elements of the Pump Equation. The equation is not complicated and will help you quickly understand what is happening to your water supply. It can be used to answer the following basic questions: How far will my pump push water? How much pump pressure do I need? The pump equation is: Pump pressure = Nozzle Pressure + Back Pressure + Friction Loss Pump Pressure. Pump pressure is the maximum water pressure that the pump is capable of producing. The maximum water pressure and date it was measure are recorded on a pump card that is attached to the fully inspected ‘fire ready’ pump. Nozzle Pressure. Nozzle pressure is the water pressure at the nozzle, which forces the discharge of water. The minimum effective nozzle pressure is 25psi. Back Pressure. Back pressure is the pressure loss (i.e. or gain if pumping downhill) due to the weight of the water being affected by gravity. Use 0.5psi/ft of elevation change. Examine your proposed hose lay and estimate the difference in elevation between the pump site and nozzle. Calculate the pressure loss due to back pressure. Friction Loss. Friction loss is the total pressure loss due to turbulence created by the hose and associated appliances. Use 2psi per 100ft hose length and 5psi per inline appliance. Calculate the pressure loss due to friction. Friction is influenced by: Size of nozzle opening since the larger the nozzles opening the more water flowing through the hose since the greater the pressure loss due to friction Hose diameter since the smaller the hose diameter the more water forced to come in contact with the hose walls the greater the pressure loss due to friction § Hose lining since the rougher the surface interior of the hose the greater the turbulence in the water flow which results in a greater pressure loss due to friction

Pump Equation 101 Given the following, will the pump deliver a minimum effective nozzle pressure of 25psi? 185psi pump pressure 150ft elevation difference from pump to fire 2000ft of hose required 2 in-line appliances Sample Calculation Given the following, will the pump deliver a minimum effective nozzle pressure of 25psi? § 185psi pump pressure § 150ft elevation difference from pump to fire § 2000ft of hose required § 2 in-line appliances Calculations: Nozzle Pressure = Pump Pressure ‑ Head ‑ Friction Loss Nozzle Pressure = 185 ‑ (150 x .5) ‑ (20 x x 5) Nozzle Pressure = 185 ‑ 75 ‑ 50 Nozzle Pressure = 60 The pump will deliver a nozzle pressure of 60psi, which is greater then the minimum pressure required.

Pump Equation 101 Calculations: Nozzle Pressure = Pump Pressure - Head - Friction Loss Nozzle Pressure = 185 – (150 x 0.5) – (20 x x 5) Nozzle Pressure = 185 – 75 – 50 Nozzle Pressure = 60 Nozzle pressure is 60psi, which is greater than minimum pressure required

Wildland Foam Fire retardant reduces or inhibits combustion Short-term retardant (e.g. foam) relies on water-holding capacity and cooling ability for its effectiveness Foam makes water wetter, sticks to fuels, creates an insulating barrier and isolates fuel from oxygen Class A foam designed for porous fuels Class B foam designed for flammable liquids (i.e. interface response) A fire retardant is any substance that, by physical or chemical action, reduces or inhibits combustion, thereby slowing or retarding the rate of spread of the fire. It must be understood that the purpose of applying retardant from the air to forest fuels is to buy time to slow or halt the spread of fire until ground crews arrive, and not to extinguish it. The effectiveness of long-term retardant depends upon the fuels the fire is burning in and weather conditions at that time. The long-term retardant can be effective indefinitely or last only a few minutes. Fire retardants are classified into 2 types: short-term and long-term. A short-term retardant relies almost entirely on its water-holding capacity and cooling ability for its effectiveness. Water is the simplest of short-term retardants. The effectiveness of water and its drop characteristics are improved by the use of thickeners. The thickened water holds together while cascading from the air tanker. It coats the fuel and retards the fire's rate of spread. Technique of application is directly on the fire thereby absorbing heat and reducing fire intensity. Foams are good examples of short-term retardants. Foam solution and the foam created by agitating that foam solution, increase the fire suppressing effectiveness of water in a number of ways: Foam solution (i.e. wet foam or soapy water) makes water wetter by reducing water’s surface tension by up to 60%, which increases it’s surface area available for heat absorption and makes it better at penetrating fuels Foam (i.e. dry foam or agitated foam solution) causes water to stick to fuels since it’s more viscous Foam creates an insulating barrier for the fuel it’s applied to Foam isolates fuel from oxygen Class A. Class A foams are designed for use on fires of porous fuels (e.g. wood, paper, rubber and plastic). They extinguish fire by increasing the wetting and cooling capabilities of water. It shouldn’t be used on flammable liquid fires because its high water content is likely to spread the fire. In wildland fuels, the effectiveness of water as a fire suppressant is increased approximately 300% when firefighting foam concentrate is added to the water supply. Class A foams are essentially high-density soaps. Class B. Class B foams are designed for use on flammable liquid fires. They’re primarily used by structural firefighters and rescue personnel. Most commonly seen by wildland fire fighters during inter-face fires. Fires are extinguished by suppressing flammable vapors with a blanket of very dry, stiff foam. Class B foam is not intended to be used on Class A fires where wetting and cooling of fuels is required for complete extinguishment.

Ground Application of Wildland Foam
Basic Wildland Fire Management Ground Application of Wildland Foam Equipment types: Suction Side Inductor Inline Inductor Compressed Air Foam System Foam applied to base of flame Don’t walk through foam blanket Foam guard may be used during burn out operations In order for ground crews to apply fire foam, several different types of equipment have been developed. Generally a mix ratio of % is used. Suction Side Inductor, which uses suction tee installed between the suction hose and the suction inlet to draft foam concentrate through a metering device at a selected rate Inline Inductor, which uses a unit connected inline along the hose lay, usually at the nozzle Compressed Air Foam System, which is the most effective foam proportioning system and is primarily used on specialized tank truck (e.g. interface response) Foam is applied to the base of the flame with some consideration for fire-proofing adjacent fuels. Since foam is 3 times as effective as water, it’s not necessary to apply as much foam to the fire as you would straight water. Foam is highly visible and coverage is readily apparent. Firefighters shouldn’t walk through a foamed area, any footprints in the foam blanket reduce its extinguishing capabilities. Foam' s ability to stick to fuels allows it to be used (for limited periods) as a wet line from which to burn out if the fuels are light. Use of a wetter foam type allows for adequate wetting of all surface fuels and prevents the burn off fire from creeping under the foam guard. The use of dry foam to insulate fuels against a fire's advance can be quite successful. This is a particularly useful technique in the Wildland Urban Interface (WUI). Facilities can be protected for some time with an application of dry foam. Types: Self-contained, single action forestry pump with a built-in foam system (i.e. 5gal capacity). Each time the pump is charged, 1% of foam concentrate is educted into the water and the nozzle generates foam when the pump is discharged. Ideal for grassland fires and mop-up work. Self-contained system connects to 1.5in hose. No pre-mixing required. Just fill jug (i.e. 4L capacity) with concentrate, attach to hose and use (i.e. built-in eductor with fixed 1% or variable mixture). It has an aspirating nozzle.

Considerations for Its Use
Basic Wildland Fire Management Considerations for Its Use Use PPE (i.e. goggles, rubber gloves, rubber boots) Avoid using foam in environmentally sensitive areas (e.g. watersheds) Use foam systems that allow foam jugs to placed further from pump Always use a back check valve Extend bleed-off line away from water source Before shutting down pump, flush it out for 20min If you spill foam concentrate on your clothing, remove clothing and rinse affected area Foam concentrate is severely irritating to the eyes and moderately irritating to the skin. Prolonged or repeated contact with foam concentrate may produce skin irritation and inhalation of its mists may irritate the lining of the nose and throat. Eye protection must be worn when handling foam concentrate. A quantity of fresh water, for immediate flushing of eyes, should be available at the mixing site should accidental contact occur. The use of rubber gloves is recommended when handling the concentrate. What’s more, the use of a barrier cream, which is provided with most foam kits, is recommended to prevent skin irritation. Rubber boots or shoes are recommended for firefighters working with foam as the wetting properties of even dilute solutions of foam concentrates will result in penetration of leather footwear, and the discomfort and problems arising from having wet feet for prolonged periods. Spills of foam concentrate on clothing will require that the clothing be removed and the affected area washed out with water. Exposed skin should be washed as soon as possible. These precautions are similar to those that are used with any heavy‑duty detergent. Never re-use foam concentrate containers for other liquids, and never mix different foam concentrate products together. Class A foam concentrate is highly biodegradable when placed in the natural environment; more than 85% reverts to carbon dioxide within 28d. The toxicological properties of foam concentrate have been evaluated by a number of agencies and meet standard requirements. That being said, the following precautions should be taken. Avoid use of foams in environmentally sensitive areas such as watersheds, hatchery drainage’s or near water intakes Use foam injection systems that allow foam concentrate jugs to be placed further away from the pump near a water source Always use a back check valve below the point where foam concentrate is introduced to the water system Extend the bleed‑off line and lead it well away from any water source Before shutting down the pump at the end of the day, firefighters should turn off the metering device and allow time for the system to flush itself of concentrate (20min), which prevents foam concentrate from seeping back through the suction hose and into the water supply

Conclusion 5 types of water delivery systems Progessive hose lay used to quickly move a hose lay up the flank of a fast spreading fire Nozzling technique will be determined by type of fire your fighting Pump equation can tell you what’s happening to your water supply Wildland foam increases efficiency of water by 300%

Objectives Upon completion of this section, you will be able to: Identify different types of hoses/valves and their application Recognize different types of nozzles Setup a Standard Hose Lay Illustrate 3 multi-pump systems and indicate when each would be used Demonstrate how to start a Mark3 pump Name 3 engine/pump unit problems when troubleshooting Mark3 Describe 4 nozzling techniques Use Pump Equation to calculate nozzle pressure

Basic Wildland Fire Management

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