1. Spectral Line Calibration Techniques with Single Dish Telescopes K. O’Neil NRAO - GB

2. Determining the Source Temperature

3. Determining T source T meas ( ,az,za) = T src ( ,az,za)

4. Determining T source T meas ( ,az,za) = T src ( ,az,za) Or at least, that is what we want…

5. Determining T source T meas ( ,az,za) = T src ( ,az,za) + T system -> Rx, other hardware The noise that is picked up as the signal is received and passed down through the processing system

6. Determining T source T meas ( ,az,za) = T src ( ,az,za) + T RX, other hardware + T spillover (za,az)

7. Determining T source T meas ( ,az,za) = T src ( ,az,za) + T RX, other hardware + T spillover (za,az) + T celestial (  t)

8. T meas ( ,az,za) = T src ( ,az,za) + T RX, other hardware + T spillover (za,az) + T celestial (  t) + T CMB + T atm (za) Determining T source

9. T meas ( ,az,za) = T src ( ,az,za) + T RX, other hardware + T spillover (za,az) + T celestial (  t) + T CMB + T atm (za) T meas = T source + T everything else Determining T source

10. T meas ( ,az,za) = T src ( ,az,za) + T RX, other hardware + T spillover (za,az) + T celestial (  t) + T CMB + T atm (za) T meas = T source + T everything else Determining T source

11. ON source OFF source T source + T everything else T everything else Arbitrary Units

12. Determining T source ON - OFF (T source + T everything else ) - (T everything else ) Arbitrary Counts

13. Determining T source (ON – OFF)/OFF [(T source + T everything else ) - (T everything else )]/ T everything else =(Source temperature)/(”System” temperature) % T sys

14. Determining T source (ON – OFF)/OFF [(T source + T everything else ) - (T everything else )]/ T everything else =(Source temperature)/(”System” temperature) % T sys ???

15. Choosing the Best OFF

16. Off Source Observations Two basic concepts Go off source in sky Go off source in frequency/channels Like most things in science: Easy to state, complicated in practice

17. Off Source Observations Position Switching ON SourceOFF Source

18. Off Source Observations Position Switching Little a priori information needed Typically gives very good results Can be done through: –Moving the telescope (re-pointing onto blank sky) –Moving a secondary or tertiary dish –Beam switching (two receivers on the sky) Disadvantages: –System must be stable over time of pointings –Sky position must be carefully chosen –Source must not be extended beyond positions –May take significant time (not true for beam switching)

19. Off Source Observations Beam Switching Same idea as position switching Hardware switch, not telescope move Removes need to move telescope Source is always in one beam Disadvantages/Caveats: Requires two receivers, very precise hardware Switch sources/beams periodically Sky position must be carefully chosen Source must not be extended beyond throw Source Sky Switch

20. Off Source Observations off source in frequency/channels Typically gives very good results Requires well understood line of interest Can be done through: –Baseline fitting –Frequency switching –Some combination of the two

21. Off Source Observations Baseline Fitting Simplest & most efficient method Can be from average of multiple scans or single fit Not feasible if: Line of interest is large compared with bandpass Standing waves in data Cannot readily fit bandpass Do not know frequency/width of line of interest Errors are primarily from quality of fit

22. Baseline Fitting with an average fit Can offer a very good fit Removes most issues with poor individual baselines System must be very stable with time Errors are still primarily due to accuracy of fit Off Source Observations

23. Frequency Switching

24. Off Source Observations Frequency Switching Allows for rapid switch between ON & OFF observations Does not require motion of telescope Can be very efficient Disadvantages: Frequency of line of interest should be known* System must be stable in channel space Will not work with changing baselines, wide lines *But not always…

25. Mapping an Extended Source Off Source Observations Variations Possible alternative if frequency switching is not an option System must be very stable Off source must truly be off!

26. Off Source Observations Variations There are many other variations to the main themes given: Position switching by moving subreflector Using average offs from a variety of observations Frequency switching with many baseline scans Etc, etc The ideal off: Is well understood Has minimal systematic effects Adds little noise to the results Maximizes the on-source telescope time

27. Position Switching on Strong Continuum Off Source Observations Variations ON Source 1 OFF Source 1 ON Source 2OFF Source 2

28. Position Switching on Strong Continuum Possibly only alternative if T src > few x T sys Designed to remove residual standing waves Requires two source with similar power levels Result: [On( ) – Off( )] source1 [On( ) – Off( )] source2 R= Off Source Observations Variations From ATOM 2001-02 by Ghosh & Salter

29. Position Switching on Strong Continuum Off Source Observations Variations Standard (On – Off)/Off [(On – Off)/Off] 1 [(On – Off)/Off] 2 [(On – Off)] 1 [(On – Off)] 2 From ATOM 2001-02 bu Ghosh & Salter

30. Position Switching on Strong Continuum Off Source Observations Variations From ATOM 2001-02 by Ghosh & Salter Standard (On – Off)/Off [(On – Off)/Off] 1 [(On – Off)/Off] 2 [(On – Off)] 1 [(On – Off)] 2

31. Determining T source (ON – OFF)/OFF [(T source + T everything else ) - (T everything else )]/ T everything else T source T system Result = Units are % System Temperature Need to determine system temperature to calibrate data

32. Determining System Temperature

33. Determining T system Theory Measure various components of T sys: T CMB ― Well known (2.7 K) T RX, hardware ― Can be measured/monitored T cel (  t) ― Can be determined from other measurements T atm (za) ― Can be determined from other measurements T gr (za,az) ― Can be calculated Decreasing Confidence

34. Determining T sys Noise Diodes

35. T src /T sys = (ON – OFF)/OFF T diode / T sys = (ON – OFF)/OFF T sys = T diode * OFF/(ON – OFF) Noise Diodes Determining T sys

36. Noise Diodes - Considerations Frequency dependence Determining T sys Lab measurements of the GBT L-Band calibration diode, taken from work of M. Stennes & T. Dunbrack - February 14, 2002

37. Noise Diodes - Considerations Frequency dependence Time stability Determining T sys Lab measurements of the GBT L-Band calibration diode, taken from work of M. Stennes & T. Dunbrack - February 14, 2002

38. Determining T sys Noise Diodes - Considerations Frequency dependence Time stability Accuracy of measurements Typically measured against another diode or other calibrator Errors inherent in instruments used to measure both diodes Measurements often done in lab -> numerous losses through path from diode injection to back ends  2 measured value =  2 standard cal +  2 instrumental error +  2 loss uncertainties

39. Determining T sys Noise Diodes - Considerations Frequency dependence  2 total =  2 freq. dependence +  2 stability +  2 measured value +  2 conversion error Time stability Accuracy of measurements

40. Determining T sys Hot & Cold Loads Takes antenna into account True temperature measurement Hot Load T hot Cooling System T cold

41. Determining T sys A Relevant Aside : (The Y-Factor) Y = T off = Measured with two noise sources in the lab T 1 + T off T 2 + T off T 1 - YT 2 Y - 1

42. Determining T sys Hot & Cold Loads Hot Load T hot Cooling System T cold Cold source or cold sky Absorber, typically T 1 - YT 2 Y - 1 T off =

43. Determining T sys Hot & Cold Loads Takes antenna into account True temperature measurement Requires: Reliable loads able to encompass the receiver Response fast enough for on-the-fly measurements

44. Determining T sys Theory: Needs detailed understanding of telescope & structure Atmosphere & ground scatter must be stable and understood Noise Diodes: Can be fired rapidly to monitor temperature Requires no ‘lost’ time Depends on accurate measurements of diodes Hot/Cold Loads: Can be very accurate Observations not possible when load on Must be in mm range for on-the-fly measurements In reality, all three methods could be combined for best accuracy

45. Determining T source T source = (ON – OFF) T system OFF From diodes, Hot/Cold loads, etc. Blank Sky or other Telescope response has not been accounted for!

46. Determining Telescope Response

47. Telescope Response Ideal Telescope: –Accurate gain, telescope response can be modeled –Can be used to determine the flux density of ‘standard’ continuum sources –Not practical in cases where telescope is non-ideal (blocked aperture, cabling/electronics losses, ground reflection, etc)

48. Telescope Response Ideal Telescope:

49. Telescope Response ‘Bootstrapping’: Observe source with pre-determined fluxes Determine telescope gain T source = (ON – OFF) T system 1 OFF GAIN GAIN = (ON – OFF) T system OFF T source

50. Telescope Response ‘Bootstrapping’: Useful when gain is not readily modeled Offers ready means for determining telescope gain Requires calibrator flux to be well known in advance Not practical if gain changes rapidly with position

51. Telescope Response Pre-determined Gain curves: Allows for accurate gain at all positions Saves observing time Can be only practical solution (complex telescopes) Caveat: Observers should always check the predicted gain during observations against a number of calibrators!

52. T source = (ON – OFF) T system 1 OFF GAIN From diodes, Hot/Cold loads, etc. Blank Sky or other Theoretical, or Observational Determining T source Great, you’re done!Great, you’re done?

53. A Few Other Issues

54. Other Issues: Pointing Results in reduction of telescope gain Always check telescope pointing!

55. Other Issues: Focus Results in reduction of telescope gain Corrected mechanically Always check focus!!!

56. Other Issues: Side Lobes* Allows in extraneous or unexpected radiation Can result in false detections, over-estimates of flux, incorrect gain determination Solution is to fully understand side lobes *Covered more fully in talk by Lockman Beam

57. Other Issues: Coma & Astigmatism Comatic Error : –sub-reflector shifted perpendicular from main beam –results in an offset between the beam and sky pointing Image from ATOM 99-02, Heiles

58. Other Issues: Coma & Astigmatism Astigmatism: deformities in the reflectors Can result in false detections, over-estimates of flux, incorrect gain determination Solution is to fully understand beam shape Image from ATOM 99-02, Heiles

59. Other Issues: The Atmosphere This is a huge issue. Can result in false detections, over-estimates of flux, incorrect gain determination Solution is to fully understand beam shape Image from ATOM 99-02, Heiles

60. Other Issues: The Atmosphere This is a huge issue. So huge it deserves its own talk. Can result in false detections, over-estimates of flux, incorrect gain determination Solution is to fully understand beam shape Image from ATOM 99-02, Heiles

61. Other Issues: The Atmosphere This is a huge issue. So huge it deserves its own talk. Which is next. Can result in false detections, over-estimates of flux, incorrect gain determination Solution is to fully understand beam shape Image from ATOM 99-02, Heiles

62. Conclusion: (applies to all science research) Astronomy instrumentation and calibration is complicated Learn the system you are using well Talk with the instrument staff frequency, and visit often To produce good science you must understand the instrument and techniques you are using You are ultimately responsible for the quality of your data!

63. The End