1. Chapter 10 Early Childhood: Social and Emotional Development

2. Early Childhood: Social and Emotional Development Truth or Fiction?
Parents who are restrictive and demand mature behavior wind up with rebellious children, not mature children.
There is no point in trying to reason with a 4-year-old.

3. Early Childhood: Social and Emotional Development Truth or Fiction?
Firstborn children are more highly motivated to achieve than later-born children.
Children who are physically punished are more likely to be aggressive.

4. Early Childhood: Social and Emotional Development Truth or Fiction?
Children who watch 2 to 4 hours of TV a day will see 8,000 murders and another 100,000 acts of violence by the time they have finished elementary school.
Children mechanically imitate the aggressive behavior they view in the media.

5. Early Childhood: Social and Emotional Development Truth or Fiction?
The most common fear among preschoolers is fear of social disapproval.
A 2 1/2-year-old may know that she is a girl but still think that she can grow up to be a daddy.

6. Influences on Development
Parents, Siblings, and Peers

7. What Are the Dimensions of Child Rearing?
Warmth – Coldness
Degree of affection and acceptance of child
Parental warmth relates to
Development of moral conscience
Positive emotional and social well being
Restrictiveness – Permissiveness
Degree to which parents impose rules and control

8. What Techniques Do Parents Use to Restrict Their Children’s Behavior?
Induction
Reasoning – child will understand what to do in similar situation
Power Assertion
“Spare the rod, spoil the child”
Withdrawal of Love
Threats or isolation of child

9. What Are the Parenting Styles Involved in the Transmission of Values and Standards?
Authoritative Parents
High on Warmth, High on Restrictiveness
Self-reliance, independence, high self-esteem and social competence
Authoritarian Parents
Low on Warmth, High on Restrictiveness
Less socially competent, lower self-reliance and self-esteem

10. What Are the Parenting Styles Involved in the Transmission of Values and Standards?
Permissive Parents
Permissive – Indulgent
High warmth, low restrictivenss
Less competent in school but fairly high in social competence and self-confidence
Permissive – neglecting
Low warmth, low restrictiveness
Least competent, responsible and mature children

11. Developing in a World of Diversity
Individualism, Collectivism, and Patterns of Child Rearing

12. Figure The Self in Relation to Others From the Individualist and Collectivist Perspectives. To an individualist, the self is separate from other people (A). To a collectivist, the self is complete only in terms of relationships to other people (B). (Based on Markus & Kiqayama, 1991). Are there differences in the ways in which people in individualist and collectivist cultures rear their children?
Figure 10.1 The Self in Relation to Others from the Individualist and Collectivist Perspectives

13. What Kinds of Influence Do Siblings Have on Social and Personal Development in Early Childhood?
Positive Aspects
Cooperation
Teaching
Nurturance
Negative Aspects
Conflict
Control
Competition
Siblings imitate each other
Conflict may enhance social competence and self-identity
As siblings age, relationship becomes more egalitarian and conflict declines

14. What Kinds of Influence Do Siblings Have on Social and Personal Development in Early Childhood?
Adjusting to Birth of Sibling
Both positive and negative reaction to stress of new sibling
regression
increased independence and maturity
Preparation of child to new sibling shows less sibling rivalry

15. What Does the Research Say About the Effects of Being a First-born or an Only Child?
First-born children
More highly motivated to achieve, more cooperative, adult-oriented
Show greater anxiety, less self-reliant
More likely to have imaginary playmate
Later-born children
Tend to be more popular with peers
More rebellious, liberal and agreeable
Parenting style may differ between first- and later-born children

16. What Is The Influence of Peers on Social and Personal Development in Early Childhood?
By age 2, children
Imitate another’s play
Engage in social games
Show a preference for playmates
Preschool friendships
Characterized by shared, positive experiences, feelings of attachment
Show higher levels of interaction, prosocial behavior, positive emotions
Based on experiences; shared toys, activities, and fun

17. Developing in a World of Diversity
The Case of the (In)Visible Father

18. In the World, Among Others
Social Behaviors
In the World, Among Others

19. What Do Developmentalists Know About Child’s Play?
Play based on cognitive development (Piaget, 1951, 1962)
Functional Play – repetitive motor activity
Symbolic Play – pretend play
Constructive Play – draw or make something
Formal Games – games with rules

20. What Do Developmentalists Know About Child’s Play?
Six types of play (Parten, 1932)
Nonsocial (Children do not interact)
Unoccupied Play
Solitary Play
Onlooker Play
Social (Children influenced by others as they play)
Parallel Play
Associative Play
Cooperative Play

21. Are There Boys’ Toys and Girls’ Toys?
By 18-months child shows more preference for gender-stereotyped toys
Girls are more likely to stray from stereotypes
May represent social prestige of masculine in American culture
Gender differences in play activities
Boys prefer vigorous outdoor, rough and tumble play
Girls prefer arts and crafts, domestic play

22. Why Do Children Show Early Gender Preferences in Choice of Toys and Activities?
Biological factors
Boys – slightly greater strength and activity level
Girls – slightly greater physical maturity and coordination
Differences in treatment by adults
Children seek “appropriate” labels for toys and play
Peer, parental, adult criticism

23. Why Do Children Choose to Associate With Peers of Their Own Sex?
Boys’ play - more oriented toward dominance, aggression and rough play
Girls seek out other girls to protect against this behavior
Boys are not responsive to girls’ suggestions
Unpleasant to interact with unresponsive playmate
Boys may view girls as inferior

24. How Does Prosocial Behavior Develop?
Empathy - sensitivity to the feelings of others
From infancy, babies cry when they hear other children cry
May be reflexive or the start of empathy
By second year, approach others in distress and try to help
Unresponsive empathy – more aggressive behavior in school years
Girls show more empathy than boys
Social learning or genetic?
Perspective-Taking

25. Influences on Prosocial Behavior
Reinforcement of behaviors
More positive peer response
Responsibility
Household chores and caring for siblings
Observation of behaviors of peers
Parental interactions
Parenting style

26. How Does Aggression Develop?
Aggression in preschoolers
Frequently instrumental or possession-oriented
Usually causes rejection by peers
Aggression at 6- or 7-years
Hostile and person-oriented
Aggressive behavior appears to be stable over time

27. What Causes Aggression in Children?
Evolutionary theory
Struggle for survival
Biological factors
Genetic factors
Testosterone
Temperament
Cognitive factors
Inaccurate interpretation of others’ behavior
Lack of empathy and perspective-taking

28. What Causes Aggression in Children?
Social Learning
Reinforcement and Observational Learning
Media Influences
Classic study on influence of televised models of aggression
Television is a major source of informal observational learning

29. How Do Depictions of Violence Contribute to Aggression?
Observational learning
Disinhibition
Increased arousal
Priming of aggressive thoughts and memories
Habituation

30. Other Factors Related to Aggression
Violent video games
Parental behavior
Substance abuse
Paternal physical punishments
Single motherhood
Absence of or rejection by parent

31. Personality and Emotional Development

32. How Does the Self Develop During Early Childhood?
Categorical Self – external traits
Age groupings
Sex
Self-Esteem
High value attached to themselves
Secure attachment and mothers sensitive to their needs
By age 4, begin evaluative judgments
Cognitive and physical competence
Social acceptance by peers and parents

33. Erikson’s Initiative Versus Guilt
Erikson’s stage of psychosocial development
Strive to achieve independence from parents
Strive to master adult behaviors
Children begin to internalize adult rules
Fear of violating rules may cause guilt
Support to explore helps develop initiative

34. What Sorts of Fears Do Children Have in the Early Years?
Number of fears peaks between 2 1/2 and 4 years
Decline in fears of
loud noises, falling, sudden movement and strangers
Most likely to have fears about
animals, imaginary creatures, the dark and personal safety
In middle childhood, fears become more realistic

35. Helping Children Cope With Fears
A Closer Look
Helping Children Cope With Fears

36. Development of Gender Roles and Sex Differences

37. What Are Stereotypes and Gender Roles?
Behavioral expectations based on gender
In American culture
Feminine gender roles- dependence, gentleness, helpfulness, warmth, emotionality, submissiveness, home-orientation
Masculine gender roles – aggressiveness, self-confidence, independence, competitiveness, competence in business, math and science

38. How Do Gender Roles Develop?
Stages of development of gender roles
/2 years – accurate identifying pictures of boys and girls
3 years – display knowledge of gender stereotypes
Traditional stereotypes about activities, occupations, personality traits
View their own gender more positive

39. What Are The Origins of Sex Differences in Behavior?
Evolution and Heredity
Sex differences are result of natural selection, adaptation
Survival set passed through genes (heredity)
Result – parental investment model
Organization of the Brain
Hippocampus and Navigation
Males use both hemispheres and rely on geometry
Females use right hemisphere (with right prefrontal cortex) and rely on landmarks
Right-brained or Left-brained
Left and right hemispheres more specialized in men

40. What Are The Origins of Sex Differences in Behavior?
Sex Hormones
Prenatal influence on behavioral influences
Social Cognitive Theory
Observational learning and socialization
Parental influence

41. Lessons in Observation: Gender
When do children typically develop a sense of gender identity?
Do the children depicted in the video give responses that you would expect from a preschool child in regard to gender identity and constancy?
Why or why not?

42. Lessons in Observation: Gender

43. Lessons in Observation: Gender
Do the children in the video show stereotypic gender role expectations?
Cite examples to support your answer.
How do children develop gender role stereotypes?
Are preschool children typically flexible or inflexible in their ideas, regarding gender typed behavior? Why?
Give examples from the video that are consistent with your responses.

44. Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Of Gender Typing
Form concepts about gender and fit behavior to those concepts
Gender Identity
Knowledge that one is male or female
Gender Stability
People retain their sex for life
Gender Constancy
Sex does not change, even if people modify behavior or dress
Conservation of gender – related to development of conservation
Once child has achieved gender stability and constancy, they seek to behave in ways consistent with their sex

45. Bem’s Gender Schema Theory
Use sex as one way of organizing their perceptions of the world
Gender schema - cluster of concepts about male and female traits
Gender identity brings gender appropriate behavior
Child acts in ways consistent with the gender schema

46. What is Psychological Androgyny?
High in masculine traits only – masculine
High in feminine traits only – feminine
Neither strong masculine or feminine – undifferentiated
High in both masculine and feminine – psychologically androgynous
Better social relations, superior adjustment, greater creativity