1. Chapter 7
Training
Companies are in business to make money, and every business function is under pressure to show how it contributes to business success or face spending cuts and even outsourcing. To contribute to a company’s success, training activities should help the company achieve its business strategy. There is both a direct and an indirect link between training and business strategy and goals. Training can help employees develop skills needed to perform their jobs, which directly affects the business. Giving employees opportunities to learn and develop creates a positive work environment, which supports the business strategy by attracting talented employees as well as motivating and retaining current employees. This chapter emphasizes the conditions through which training practices can help companies gain competitive advantage and how managers can contribute to a high-leverage training effort and create a learning organization. Chapter 7 discusses a systematic and effective approach to training design, reviews training methods and training evaluation, and concludes with a discussion of training issues including cross-cultural preparation, managing diversity, and socializing employees.
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

2. Learning Objectives
Discuss how training, informal and continuous learning, and knowledge management can contribute to companies’ business strategy.
Explain the manager’s role in identifying training needs and supporting training.
Conduct a needs assessment.
Evaluate employees‘ readiness for training.
Discuss strengths and weaknesses of presentations, hands-on and group training methods.
Learning Objectives include:
Discuss how training, informal and continuous learning and knowledge management can contribute to companies’ business strategy.
Explain the manager’s role in identifying training needs and supporting training on the job.
Conduct a needs assessment.
Evaluate employees’ readiness for training.
Discuss strengths and weaknesses of presentation, hands-on, and group training methods.
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3. Learning Objectives Explain potential e-learning training advantages.
Design a training session to maximize learning.
Choose an appropriate evaluation design based on training objectives and analysis of constraints.
Design a cross-cultural preparation program.
Develop a program for effectively managing diversity.
Learning Objectives also include:
6. Explain potential e-learning training advantages.
7. Design a training session to maximize learning.
8. Choose an appropriate evaluation design based on training objectives and analysis of constraints.
9. Design a cross-cultural preparation program.
10. Develop a program for effectively managing diversity. .
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4. Training can...
Increase employees’ knowledge of foreign competitors and cultures.
Help ensure that employees have skills to work with new technology.
Help employees understand how to work effectively in teams to contribute to product and service quality.
Improve employee performance which leads to improved business results.
Increase employees’ knowledge of foreign competitors and cultures.
Help ensure that employees have skills to work with new technology.
Help employees understand how to work effectively in teams to contribute to product and service quality.
Improves employee performance which leads to improved business results.

5. Training can...
Ensure that the company’s culture emphasizes innovation, creativity and learning.
Ensure employment security by providing new ways for employees to contribute when their jobs change or interests change or skills become obsolete
Prepare employees to work more effectively with each other.
Ensure the company’s culture emphasizes innovation, creativity, and learning.
Ensure employment security by providing new ways for employees to contribute when their jobs change or interests change or skills become obsolete. Prepare employees to accept and work more effectively with each other, particularly with minorities and women.

6. Continuous & High-Leverage Training
Training facilitates employees’ learning job-related knowledge, skills and behavior.
Continuous learning requires employees to understand the entire work process, acquire and apply new skills and share what they have learned.
High-leverage training is:
linked to strategic business goals and objectives,
supported by top management,
relies on an instructional design model, and is
benchmarked to programs in other organizations.
Training is a well-planned effort to facilitate the learning of job-related knowledge, skills and behavior by employees.
Continuous learning requires employees to understand the entire work process and expects them to acquire and apply new skills and share what they have learned with other employees.
High‑leverage training links training to strategic business goals, has top management support, relies on an instructional design model, and is benchmarked to programs in other organizations.

7. Features of Continuous Learning
Figure 7.1 shows that formal training and development, informal learning, and knowledge management are the key features of a continuous learning philosophy that focuses on performance and supports the business strategy.
Informal training is learner initiated, involves action and doing, is motivated by an intent to develop and does not occur in a formal learning setting.
Formal training is instructor led and on-line programs, courses and events developed and organized by the company.

8. 2 Types of Knowledge Tacit Knowledge Explicit Knowledge
personal knowledge based on individual experience difficult to codify.
Explicit Knowledge
well documented, easily articulated and transferred person to person.
Tacit Knowledge is personal knowledge based on individual experience difficult to codify.
Explicit Knowledge is well documented, easily articulated and transferred person to person. Examples include charts, checklists, flowcharts, formulas, definitions and processes.
Knowledge management refers to the process of enhancing company performance by designing and implementing tools, processes, systems, structures, and cultures to improve the creation, sharing, and use of knowledge. Knowledge management contributes to informal learning.

9. Key Features of Continuous Training
Learning
Knowledge Management
Informal Learning
Formal Training & Development
Supports
Business Strategy
Focus on
Performance
Continuous learning including knowledge management, training and informal learning should contribute to and support the business strategy. and address performance issues that lead to improved business results. Continuous learning needs to address performance issues that lead to improved business results by aligning with the business strategy, has visible support from senior managers and involves leaders as instructors and teachers, creates a culture or work environment that encourages learning, provides a wide range of learning opportunities including training, informal learning, knowledge management, and employee development, uses traditional methods and innovative technologies to design and deliver learning, and measures the effectiveness and overall business impact of learning.

10. ADDIE Model Design Develop Implement Evaluate Analysis
The ADDIE model (analysis, design, development, implementation, evaluation) is a systematic approach for developing training programs.

11. Training Process Feedback Needs assessment Ensure readiness
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Training Process
Needs assessment
Ensure readiness
Create learning environment
Ensure transfer
Select methods
Evaluate programs
Feedback
Figure 7.2 presents the six stage process. The key is to choose a training method that will provide the appropriate learning environment to achieve training objectives. Stage 1 is to assess needs to determine if training is needed. Feedback from each stage in the training progress can be useful for other stages. Stage 2 involves ensuring employees have readiness for training, and they have motivation and basic skills to master training content. Stage 3 addresses whether the training session (or learning environment) has the factors necessary for learning to occur. Stage 4 is to ensure that trainees apply the content of training to their jobs. This requires support from managers and peers for the use of training content on the job as well as getting the employee to understand how to take personal responsibility for skill improvement. Stage 5 involves choosing a training method. The training design process should be systematic yet flexible enough to adapt to business needs. Different steps may be completed simultaneously. Stage 6 is evaluation is determining whether training achieved the desired learning outcomes and/or financial objectives. Figure 7.3 outlines the needs assessment process:
1. Needs Assessment- Organizational, person and task analysis
2. Ensure employees’ readiness for training- Attitudes and motivation and basic skills
3. Create a learning environment- learning objectives and training outcome, material, practice, feedback, observation of others and administering and coordinating program
4. Ensure transfer of training- self-management strategies and peer and manager support
5. Select training methods- presentational methods and hands-on methods
6. Evaluate training programs- outcomes, design and cost-benefit analysis

12. Needs Assessment Process
What is the content?
Organization
Analysis
Who needs training?
Person
Analysis
Needs assessment - process used to determine if training is necessary. A needs assessment usually involves organizational analysis, person analysis, and task analysis. There are often pressure points that may suggest that training is necessary such as legislation, lack of basic skills, poor performance, new technology, customer requests, new products, higher performance standards, new jobs, business growth or contraction and global business expansion. Organizational analysis involves determining the business appropriateness of training, given the company’s business strategy, its resources available for training, and support by managers and peers for training activities. Person analysis helps identify who needs training and involves (1) determining whether performance deficiencies result from a lack of knowledge, skill, or ability (a training issue) or from a motivational or work-design problem; (2) identifying who needs training; and (3) determining employees’ readiness for training. Task analysis- identifying important tasks and knowledge, skills, and behaviors to emphasize in training for employees to complete their tasks.
Outcomes:
• What do trainees need to learn?
• Who receives training
• Type and frequency of training
• Buy-versus-build training decision
• Training versus other HR options such as selection or job redesign
• How training should be evaluated?
Task
Analysis
In what do they
need training?
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13. 3 Factors to Choose Training
Company’s
Strategic Direction
Available Training
Resources
Managers need to consider three factors before choosing training as the solution to any pressure point: the company’s strategic direction, the training resources available resources such as equipment, time, budget, and feedback, reinforcement and support of managers and peers. Key factors to success are a positive attitude among peers and managers about participation in training activities; managers’ and peers’ willingness to tell trainees how they can more effectively use knowledge, skills, or behaviors learned in training on the job; and the availability of opportunities for the trainees to use training content in their jobs. If peers’ and managers’ attitudes and behaviors are not supportive, employees are not likely to apply training content to their jobs.
Strategic training and development initiatives are learning-related actions that a company should take to help achieve its business strategy. Initiatives are based on the business environment, an understanding of the company’s goals and resources and insight into potential training and development options. They provide the company with a road map to guide specific training and development activities and show how training will help the company reach its goals and add value. The plan or goal the company chooses to achieve strategic objectives has a major impact on whether resources (money, trainers’ time, program development) should be devoted to addressing a training pressure point.
Support-
Manager and Peers
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14. 5 Factors That Influence Employee Performance and Learning
Person characteristics
Input
Output
Consequences
Feedback
To determine if training is needed for a performance problem, analyze performer’s characteristics, input, output, consequences, and feedback. Based on this model, ask questions regarding these 5 factors to determine if training is the solution.
Person characteristics- ability and skill; attitudes and motivation
Input- understand what, how, when to perform, have necessary resources, no interference from other job demands and have the opportunity to perform
Output- expectations for learning performance
Consequences- positive consequences/incentives to perform
Feedback- frequent and specific feedback about how the job is performed
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15. Identify knowledge, skills and abilities
Task Analysis
Identify
jobs
Develop
task
list
Identify knowledge, skills and abilities
Validate
tasks
The four steps in a task analysis include identify jobs to be analyzed, develop a list of tasks performed on the job, validate or confirm the tasks and identify the knowledge, skills and abilities and other factors such as equipment, working conditions, etc. to successfully perform the tasks.

16. Factors That Influence Motivation to Learn
Self-
Efficacy
Benefits or Consequences of Training
Work Environment
Basic Skills
Awareness of Training Needs
Goal Orientation
Conscientiousness
The desire, energy, and focus is referred to as motivation to learn to learn and is related to knowledge gain, behavior change, or skill acquisition in training programs. This shows the factors that influence motivation to learn, and provides a description of each with examples of actions to enhance or improve. Motivation to learn influences mastery of all types of training content, including knowledge, behavior, and skills. Managers need to ensure that employees’ motivation to learn is as high as possible by ensuring employees’ self-efficacy; understanding the benefits of training; being aware of training needs, career interests, and goals; understanding work environment characteristics; and ensuring employees’ basic skill levels.

17. Ensure Employee Motivation for Learning
Motivation to learn – desire to learn the training program’s content.
Self-efficacy - employees' belief that they can successfully learn the training program’s content.
Motivation to learn is the desire of the trainee to learn the content of the training program that includes having the energy to learn, directing that energy toward learning and being able to exert the effort to learn even when faced with difficulties.
Self-efficacy is the employees' belief that they can successfully learn the content of the training program.
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18. Ensuring Employee Readiness for Learning
To increase employees' self-efficacy level:
Let employees know that training’s purpose is to improve performance.
Provide information about the training program and purpose prior to actual training.
Show employees their peers’ training success.
Provide employees feedback that learning is under their control and they have the ability and responsibility to overcome learning difficulties experienced in the program.
Managers can increase employees’ self-efficacy level by following guidelines:
Let employees know that the purpose of training is to improve performance rather than to identify areas in which employees are incompetent.
Provide as much information as possible about the training program and purpose prior to actual training.
Show employees their peers’ training success.
Provide employees feedback that learning is under their control, and that they have the ability and responsibility to overcome learning difficulties experienced in the program.
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19. Basic Skills Cognitive Ability– Reading and Writing Abilities–
verbal comprehension,
quantitative and
reasoning ability
Reading and
Writing Abilities–
level of difficulty of
written materials
Cognitive ability includes three dimensions: verbal comprehension, quantitative ability, and reasoning ability. Verbal comprehension refers to the person’s capacity to understand and use written and spoken language. Managers should be sure the readability (the difficulty level of written material) of training material does not exceed that required by the job. A readability assessment usually involves analysis of sentence length and word difficulty.
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20. 7 Conditions for Learning
Know why
they should learn
Training content
Practice
Feedback
Observe
experience,
and
interact
Good program coordination
and administration
Commit training content to memory
Learning permanently changes behavior. For employees to acquire knowledge and skills in the training program and apply this information in their jobs, seven conditions under which employees learn best include:
Need to know why they should learn.
Meaningful training content.
Opportunities to practice.
Feedback.
Observe, experience, and interact with others.
Good program coordination and administration.
Commit training content to memory.
Employees learn by observing, experiencing and interacting with other learners and their instructor. Employees need the training program to be properly coordinated and administered. and they need to commit the training content to memory. Communities of Practice refers to groups of employees who work together, learn from each other and develop a common understanding of how to get the work accomplished.
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21. Work Environment Characteristics Influencing Transfer of Training
Climate
for
transfer
(EPSS)
Technological
support
Opportunity to
perform
Transfer of
training
Transfer of training refers to on-the-job use of knowledge, skills, and behaviors learned in training and is influenced by the climate for transfer, manager support, peer support, opportunity to use learned capabilities, technology support, and self-management . Climate for transfer refers to trainees’ perceptions about a wide variety of characteristics of the work environment that facilitate or inhibit use of trained skills or behavior. These characteristics include manager and peer support, opportunity to use skills, and the consequences for using learned capabilities.
Peer support- A support network is a group of two or more trainees who agree to meet and discuss their progress in using learned capabilities on the job, in face-to-face meetings or communications via .
Opportunity to use learned capabilities -Trainee is provided with or actively seeks experience using newly learned knowledge, skills, or behavior.
Technological support- Electronic performance support systems (EPSS) are computer applications that can provide, as requested, skills training, information access, and expert advice.
Self-management refers to the process of enhancing company performance by designing and implementing tools, processes, systems, structures, and cultures to improve the creation, sharing, and use of knowledge.
Manager support - degree to which trainees’ managers (1) emphasize the importance of attending training programs and (2) stress the application of training content to the job and apply action plans.
Self-management
skills
Manager
support
Peer
support
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22. How Managers Can Support Training Table 7.5
Understand the content.
Know how training relates.
Evaluate employees on how they apply training.
Support employees’ use of training on the job.
Ensure they have equipment and technology to apply training.
Prior to training, discuss how to use content.
Explain why they have been asked to attend.
Give feedback and recognize those who use content.
Be a trainer.
Give release time.
Table 7.5 shows what managers should do to support training.

23. Manager’s Support - Action Plans
Goal
Strategies
Feedback
Expected Outcomes
An action plan is a written document that includes the steps that the trainee and manager will take to ensure that training transfers to the job. The action plan includes (1) a goal identifying what training content will be used and how it will be used (project, problem); (2) strategies for reaching the goal, including resources needed; (3) strategies for getting feedback (such as meetings with the manager); and (4) expected outcome (what will be different?). The action plan includes a schedule of specific dates and times when the manager and trainee agree to meet to discuss the progress being made in using learned capabilities on the job. At a minimum, special sessions should be scheduled with managers to explain the purpose of the training and set expectations that they will encourage attendance at the training session, provide practice opportunities, reinforce use of training, and follow up with employees to determine the progress in using newly acquired capabilities.

24. Selecting Training Methods
Presentation Methods
Instructor-led classroom instruction
Distance learning, teleconferencing & webcasting
Audiovisual techniques
Mobile technology
Hands-on Methods
On-the-job training, apprenticeships and internships
Self-directed learning
Simulations, avatars
Business games and case studies
Behavior modeling
E-learning
Social media
Blended learning
Learning management system (LMS)
Group or Team Building
Experiential programs
Cross, coordination and team training
Action and adventure learning
Teleconferencing refers to synchronous exchange of audio, video, and/or text between two or more individuals or groups at two or more locations. Webcasting involves classroom instructions that are provided online through live broadcasts.
Self-directed learning involves having employees take responsibility for all aspects of learning—when it is conducted and who will be involved.
Apprenticeship is a work-study training method with both on-the-job training and classroom training.
A simulation is a training method that represents a real-life situation, with trainees’ decisions resulting in outcomes that mirror what would happen if the trainee were on the job. Avatars refer to computer depictions of humans that are being used as imaginary coaches, co-workers, and customers in simulations. Virtual Reality Computer-based technology that provides trainees with a three-dimensional learning experience. Trainees operate in a simulated environment that responds to their behaviors and reactions.
Blended learning combines online learning, face-to-face instruction, and other methods for distributing learning content and instruction.
A learning management system (LMS) refers to a technology platform that can be used to automate the administration, development, and delivery of all of a company’s training programs. Experiential programs involve gaining conceptual knowledge and theory; taking part in a behavioral simulation; analyzing the activity; and connecting the theory and activity with on-the-job or real-life situations
Adventure learning develops teamwork and leadership skills using structured outdoor activities. In action learning teams or work groups get an actual business problem, work on solving it and commit to an action plan, and are accountable for carrying out the plan.
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25. Evaluating Training Programs
OUTCOME CATEGORIES
Cognitive Outcomes
Skill-based Outcomes
Affective Outcomes
Results
ROI
WHAT IS MEASURED
Knowledge Acquisition
Behavior and Skills
Motivation
Reaction to Program
Attitudes
Company Payoff
Economic value
HOW MEASURED
Pencil and paper tests
Work sample
Observation
Ratings
Interviews
Focus groups
Attitude surveys
Data
Identification, cost & benefits
Training outcomes- A way to evaluate the effectiveness of a training program based on cognitive, skill-based, affective, and results outcomes. Training outcomes can be categorized as cognitive outcomes, skill-based outcomes, affective outcomes, results, and return on investment. This shows the types of outcomes used in evaluating training programs and what is measured and how it is measured. Training outcomes can be classified into five broad categories: cognitive, skill‑based, affective, results, and return on investment.
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26. Evaluation Designs Post-test Only Time Series
Pre-test/Post-test with comparison group
Post-test only with comparison group
Pre-test/Post-test
Post-test Only
Time Series
Factors to consider in choosing an evaluation design include the size of the training program, purpose, and the implications if a training program does not work. Other factors include the company norms regarding evaluation, costs of designing and conducting an evaluation, and the need for speed in obtaining program effectiveness information.
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27. Determining Return on Investment (ROI)
Cost-benefit analysis -
process of determining a training program’s economic benefits using accounting methods.
Determine costs
Determine benefits
Make the analysis
Determining Costs includes direct and indirect costs. Determining Benefits identifies the potential benefits of training; the company must review the original reasons for the training. Steps to make an ROI analysis include:
1. Identify outcomes (e.g., quality, accidents).
2. Place a value on the outcomes.
3. Determine the change in performance after eliminating other potential
influences on training results.
4. Obtain an annual amount of benefits (operational results) from training by
comparing results after training to results before training (in dollars).
5. Determine the training costs (direct costs 1 indirect costs 1 development
costs 1 overhead costs 1 compensation for trainees).
6. Calculate the total savings by subtracting the training costs from benefits
(operational results).
7. Calculate the ROI by dividing benefits (operational results) by costs. ROI gives an estimate of the dollar return expected from each dollar invested in training.
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28. Cross-Cultural Preparation
Expatriate - is an employee sent by a company to manage operations in a different country.
Expatriates need to be:
Competent in their area of expertise.
Able to communicate verbally and nonverbally in host country.
Flexible, tolerant of ambiguity and sensitive to cultural differences.
Motivated to succeed, able to enjoy the challenge of working in other countries, and willing to learn about the host country’s culture, language and customs.
Supported by their families.
Expatriate-is an employee sent by a company to manage operations in a different country. Cross-cultural preparation involves educating employees (and their families) who are given an assignment in a foreign country.
Expatriates need to be:
Competent in their area of expertise.
Able to communicate verbally and nonverbally in host country.
Flexible, tolerant of ambiguity and sensitive to cultural differences.
Motivated to succeed, able to enjoy the challenge of working in other countries, and willing to learn about the host country’s culture, language and customs.
Supported by their families.
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29. 3 Phases of Cross-Cultural Preparation
Inclusion
Pre-departure
Phase
On-Site
Phase
In the pre-departure phase, employees need to receive language training and an orientation to the new country’s culture and customs.
On-site training involves continued orientation to the host country and its customs and cultures through formal programs or through a mentoring relationship.
Repatriation prepares expatriates for return to the parent company and country from a foreign assignment.
Inclusion refers to an environment in which employees share a sense of belonging, mutual respect and commitment from others so they can perform their best work.
Repatriation
Phase
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30. Managing Diversity and Inclusion
Diversity - any dimension that differentiates a person from another.
Managing Diversity - process of creating an environment that allows all employees to contribute to organizational goals and experience personal growth.
Types of Diversity Training - attitude awareness and change programs and behavior-based programs
Goals of Diversity Training and Inclusion:
Eliminate values, stereotypes, and managerial practices that inhibit
Allow employees to contribute to organizational goals
Diversity -any dimension that differentiates a person from another. To successfully manage a diverse work force, companies need to ensure that:
Behaviors that isolate or intimidate minority group member improve.
Employees gain an appreciation of cultural differences among themselves.
Managing Diversity is the process of creating an environment that allows all employees to contribute to organizational goals and experience personal growth. Diversity training refers to learning efforts that are designed to change employee attitudes about diversity and or/develop skills needed to work with a diverse workforce. 2 Types of Diversity Training: are attitude awareness and change programs and behavior-based programs.
2 Goals of Diversity Training:
(1) to eliminate values, stereotypes, and managerial practices that inhibit employees’ personal development and therefore
(2) to allow employees to contribute to organizational goals regardless of their race, sexual orientation, gender, family status, religious orientation, or cultural background.
Attitude awareness and change programs focus on increasing employees’ awareness of differences in cultural and ethnic backgrounds, physical characteristics (such as disabilities), and personal characteristics that influence behavior toward others. Behavior-based programs focus on changing the organizational policies and individual behaviors that inhibit employees’ personal growth and productivity. Employees understand how their values and stereotypes influence their behavior toward others of different gender, ethnic, racial, or religious backgrounds.
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31. Managing Diversity Programs
Top Management & Employee Support
Recruit & Hire
Fair Treatment
Hold Managers Accountable
Identify & Develop Talent
Improve Relationships with External Stakeholders
This shows the key components of effectively managing diversity programs and provides suggested actions and activities. Successful diversity requires that it be viewed as an opportunity for employees to (1) learn from each other how to better accomplish their work, (2) be provided with a supportive and cooperative organizational culture, and (3) be taught leadership and process skills that can facilitate effective team functioning. Diversity is a reality in labor and customer markets and is a social expectation and value. Managers should focus on building an organizational environment, on human resource practices, and on managerial and team skills that all capitalize on diversity

32. Onboarding and Socialization
Onboarding or socialization – process of helping new hires adjust to social and performance aspects of their new jobs. 4 Steps of Onboarding:
Compliance
Clarification
Culture
Connection
Organizational Onboarding or Socialization refers to the process used to transform new employees into effective company members by learning history, company goals, language, politics, people and performance proficiency. This shows the four steps of onboarding. Effective onboarding is related to many important outcomes for the employee and the company including higher job satisfaction, organizational commitment, lower turnover, higher performance, reduced stress and career effectiveness.
Step 1- Compliance understand company policies, rules, and regulations.
Step 2 Clarification- understand job and performance expectations.
Step 3 Culture- understand company history, traditions, values, norms, mission
Step 4 Connection- understand and develop relationships.
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33. Characteristics of Effective Onboarding Programs
Employees are encouraged to ask questions
Program includes information on both technical and social aspects
Manager has some onboarding responsibility
Embarrassing new employees is avoided
Learn about the company culture, history, language, products, services,
and customers
Follow-up of employee progress
Involves participation, active involvement, and formal and informal
interaction
Relocation assistance is provided
(Table 7.10) This shows the characteristics of effective orientation programs.

34. Summary
Technological innovations, new product markets, and a diverse workforce have increased the need for companies to reexamine how their training practices contribute to learning.
Training can contribute to effectiveness through establishing a link with the company’s strategic direction and demonstrating through cost–benefit analysis how training contributes to profitability.
The key to successful training is choosing the most effective training method.
Managing diversity and cross-cultural preparation are two training issues relevant to capitalize on a diverse workforce and global markets.
Technological innovations, new product markets, and a diverse workforce have increased the need for companies to reexamine how their training practices contribute to learning. This chapter discussed a systematic approach to training, including needs assessment, design of the learning environment, consideration of employee readiness for training, and transfer-of-training issues. The key to successful training is to choose a method that will best accomplish the objectives of training. Training can contribute to effectiveness through establishing a link with the company’s strategic direction and demonstrating through cost–benefit analysis how training contributes to profitability. Managing diversity and cross-cultural preparation are two training issues that are relevant given company needs to capitalize on a diverse workforce and global markets.
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