1. Origin of the Universe

2. Origin of Universe
Big Bang model (Hubble, 1929) - The universe began with an explosive expansion of matter, which later became what we know as stars, planets, moons, etc. This event is thought to have occurred billion yrs ago.
Nebular Hypothesis (Kant, Laplace 1796) - Earth and the other bodies of our solar system (Sun, moons, etc.) formed from a “vast cloud of dust and gases” called a nebula.

3. Big bang theory
There was a big bang some 15 billion years ago, when the size of the universe was zero and the temperature was infinite. The universe then started expanding at near light speed.
At about 10,000 years after the Big Bang, the temperature had fallen to such an extent that the energy density of the Universe began to be dominated by massive particles, rather than the light and other radiation which had predominated earlier. This explains the formation of galaxies and other large-scale structures observed in universe today.

4. Nebular Hypothesis
According to this hypothesis, the nebular cloud consisted of H and He, and a small percentage of the heavier elements we find in the solar system
Within the rotating disk, the rocky material and gases began to nucleate and accrete into protoplanets

5. Formation of Earth’s Interior
As Earth was formed, it was extremely hot from the bombardment of space debris, radioactive decay, and high internal pressures.
These processes caused Earth’s interior to melt, and then to differentiate into regions of chemical and physical differences as it cooled.

6. Continental drift Alfred Wegener
Theory that continents and plates move on the surface of the Earth proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1915.
Alfred Wegener

7. Maps by Wegener (1915), showing continental drift

8. Theory of continental drift

9. Evidence for continental drift
Matching coastlines
Matching mountains
Matching rock types and rock ages
Matching glacier deposits
Matching fossils

10. Evidence for continental drift
Matching
coastlines

11. Evidence for continental drift
Matching
mountain
ranges

12. Evidence for continental drift
Matching rock types and ages of rocks

13. Evidence for continental drift
Matching glacier
deposits 300
million years
ago

14. Evidence for continental drift
Fossils of of Mesosaurus (aquatic reptile) found on both sides of Atlantic

15. Theory of Plate tectonics
The theory of Plate tectonics was proposed in 1960s based on the theory of continental drift.
This is the Unifying theory that explains the formation and deformation of the Earth’s surface.
According to this theory, continents are carried along on huge slabs (plates) on the Earth’s outermost layer (Lithosphere).
Earth’s outermost layer is divided into 12 major Tectonic Plates (~80 km deep). These plates move relative to each other a few centimeters per year.

16. Earth’s magnetic field
Basic Data used in formulating plate tectonics:
Magnetic stripes on the sea-floor. Magnetic field of Earth reverses on semi-regular basis. Minerals act like compass needles and point towards magnetic north. “Hot” rocks record the direction of the magnetic field as they cool.

17. Tectonic plates of Earth

18. Types of plate boundaries
Divergent plate boundaries: where plates move apart
Convergent Plate boundaries: where plates come together
Transform plate boundaries: where plates slide past each other

19. Types of plate boundaries
Divergent (Tension)
Convergent (Compression)
Transform (shearing)

20. Types of plate boundaries

21. What drives plate movement?
Ultimately: heat transported from core and mantle to surface
Heat transported by convection
Core is ~5,000°C and surface is ~0°C
Where mantle rises: rifting
Where mantle dives: subduction zones

22. What are Seismic Waves?
Presentation based upon information retrieved from:
Movie clips from United Streaming

23. Seismic Wave
Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismographs.
There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different ways. The two main types of waves are body waves and surface waves.

24. Earth Stats The Earth's mass is about 5.98 x 1024 kg.
Earth is the densest planet in our Solar System (mass/volume).
Earth is made of several layers with different compositions and physical properties, like temperature, density, and the ability to flow.
MASS, DENSITY, AND ESCAPE VELOCITY The Earth's mass is about 5.98 x 1024 kg. The Earth has an average density of 5520 kg/m3 (water has a density of 1027 kg/m3). Earth is the densest planet in our Solar System. To escape the Earth's gravitational pull, an object must reach a velocity of 24,840 miles per hour (11,180 m/sec).

25. The Composition of the Earth
The Earth is made of many different and distinct layers. The deeper layers are composed of heavier materials; they are hotter, denser and under much greater pressure than the outer layers.

26. The Composition of the Earth
Crust
Thinnest layer (5-100 km)
Two types of crust
Continental
Like granite
Average 30 km
Oceanic
Like basalt
(Basalt is denser than granite!)
Average 5-8 km

27. The Composition of the Earth
Mantle
Extremely Thick! (2,900 km)
It is too far down to drill
How do we know what it is made of?
Scientists infer based on:
Pushed up rock
Ocean floor/molten rock
What is it like?
Like the mineral olivine
Large amounts of iron and magnesium
The Earth is made of many different and distinct layers. The deeper layers are composed of heavier materials; they are hotter, denser and under much greater pressure than the outer layers. Core: The Earth has a iron-nickel core that is about 2,100 miles in radius. The inner core may have a temperature up to about 13,000°F (7,200°C = 7,500 K), which is hotter than the surface of the Sun. The inner core (which has a radius of about 750 miles (1,228 km) is solid. The outer core is in a liquid state and is about 1,400 miles (2,260 km) thick.

28. The Composition of the Earth
Core
Pretty darn big. (6,856 km)
(Slightly bigger than Mars!)
33% mass of the Earth
Scientists think….
Made mostly of iron
Some nickel, sulfur, oxygen
What is the evidence?
The particular way seismic waves travel
Earth’s Magnetic field
The Earth is made of many different and distinct layers. The deeper layers are composed of heavier materials; they are hotter, denser and under much greater pressure than the outer layers. Core: The Earth has a iron-nickel core that is about 2,100 miles in radius. The inner core may have a temperature up to about 13,000°F (7,200°C = 7,500 K), which is hotter than the surface of the Sun. The inner core (which has a radius of about 750 miles (1,228 km) is solid. The outer core is in a liquid state and is about 1,400 miles (2,260 km) thick.

29. The Structure of the Earth
Lithosphere
Solid
Asthenosphere
Viscous Liquid
The Structure of the Earth
Outer Core
Liquid
Mesosphere
Solid
Core: The Earth has a iron-nickel core that is about 2,100 miles in radius. The inner core may have a temperature up to about 13,000°F (7,200°C = 7,500 K), which is hotter than the surface of the Sun. The inner core (which has a radius of about 750 miles (1,228 km) is solid. The outer core is in a liquid state and is about 1,400 miles (2,260 km) thick.
Inner Core
Solid

30. Lithosphere = ‘rock sphere’
Crust and upper rigid part of Mantle
Asthenosphere = ‘weak sphere’
Lower part of Mantle

31. How HOT is it?
Surface of Sun!
5,500°C
Sun Core
15,000,000°C

33. Mystery Box
Do we know for sure