1. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Pharynx Oropharynx and laryngopharynx Allow passage of food, fluids, and air Skeletal muscle layers: inner longitudinal, outer pharyngeal constrictors

2. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Esophagus Flat muscular tube from laryngopharynx to stomach Travels through the diaphragm via an opening called the esophageal hiatus Joins stomach at the cardiac orifice

3. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Esophagus Esophageal glands secrete mucus to lubricate and aid in bolus movement Muscularis: consists of skeletal muscle superiorly; smooth muscle inferiorly Contains upper and lower esophageal sphincters: upper and lower that act as “gateways” for food Lower esophageal sphincter prevents backflow of stomach contents into the esophagus

4. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.12a Mucosa (contains a stratified squamous epithelium) Submucosa (areolar connective tissue) Lumen Muscularis externa Adventitia (fibrous connective tissue) (a) Circular layer Longitudinal layer

5. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Digestive Processes: Mouth Ingestion Mechanical digestion Mastication is partly voluntary, partly reflexive Chemical digestion (salivary amylase and lingual lipase) Propulsion Deglutition (swallowing)

6. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Deglutition – 2 major phases Involves the tongue, soft palate, pharynx, esophagus, and 22 muscle groups Buccal (oral) phase Voluntary contraction of the tongue Pharyngeal-esophageal phase Involuntary (sensory receptors initiate the swallowing reflex) Control center in the medulla and lower pons

7. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.13, step 1 Tongue Trachea Pharynx Epiglottis Glottis Bolus of food Upper esophageal sphincter is contracted. During the buccal phase, the tongue presses against the hard palate, forcing the food bolus into the oropharynx where the involuntary phase begins. 1

8. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.13, step 2 Epiglottis Esophagus Uvula Bolus The uvula and larynx rise to prevent food from entering respiratory passageways. The tongue blocks off the mouth. The upper esophageal sphincter relaxes, allowing food to enter the esophagus. 2

9. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.13, step 3 Bolus The constrictor muscles of the pharynx contract, forcing food into the esophagus inferiorly. The upper esophageal sphincter contracts (closes) after entry. 3

10. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.13, step 4 Relaxed muscles Bolus of food Stomach Circular muscles contract Longitudinal muscles contract Gastroesophageal sphincter closed Food is moved through the esophagus to the stomach by peristalsis. 4

11. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.13, step 5 Relaxed muscles Gastroesophageal sphincter opens The gastroesophageal sphincter opens, and food enters the stomach. 5

12. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.13 Tongue Trachea Pharynx Epiglottis Glottis Bolus of food Epiglottis Esophagus Uvula Bolus Relaxed muscles Circular muscles contract Bolus of food Longitudinal muscles contract Stomach Relaxed muscles Gastroesophageal sphincter opens Gastroesophageal sphincter closed Upper esophageal sphincter is contracted. During the buccal phase, the tongue presses against the hard palate, forcing the food bolus into the oropharynx where the involuntary phase begins. Food is moved through the esophagus to the stomach by peristalsis. The gastroesophageal sphincter opens, and food enters the stomach. The uvula and larynx rise to prevent food from entering respiratory passageways. The tongue blocks off the mouth. The upper esophageal sphincter relaxes, allowing food to enter the esophagus. The constrictor muscles of the pharynx contract, forcing food into the esophagus inferiorly. The upper esophageal sphincter contracts (closes) after entry. 12 4 3 5

13. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Stomach Four Main Functions: 1.Temporary storage for ingested food 2.Mechanical breakdown of food 3.Chemical breakdown of food 4.Production of intrinsic factor, necessary for absorption of vitamin B 12

14. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Stomach: Gross Anatomy Cardiac region (cardia) Surrounds the cardiac orifice Fundus Dome-shaped region beneath the diaphragm Body Midportion

15. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Stomach: Gross Anatomy Pyloric region: antrum, pyloric canal, and pylorus Pylorus is continuous with the duodenum through the pyloric valve (sphincter) Greater curvature Convex lateral surface Lesser curvature Concave medial surface

16. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.14a Cardia Esophagus Pyloric sphincter (valve) at pylorus Pyloric canal Pyloric antrum Rugae of mucosa Body Lumen Serosa Fundus Lesser curvature Greater curvature Muscularis externa Longitudinal layer Circular layer Oblique layer (a) Duodenum

17. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Stomach: Gross Anatomy Lesser omentum From the liver to the lesser curvature Greater omentum Drapes from greater curvature Anterior to the small intestine Protects abdominal viscera

18. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.30a Falciform ligament Liver Gallbladder Spleen Stomach Ligamentum teres Greater omentum Small intestine Cecum (a)

19. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.30b Liver Lesser omentum Gallbladder Stomach Duodenum Transverse colon Small intestine Cecum Urinary bladder (b)

20. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Stomach: Microscopic Anatomy Still has four tunics Muscularis and mucosa are modified Muscularis externa Three layers of smooth muscle Inner oblique layer allows stomach to churn, mix, move, and physically break down food

21. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.15a 3 muscular layers Longitudinal Circular Oblique

22. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Stomach: Microscopic Anatomy Mucosa Simple columnar epithelium composed of mucous cells Produce a layer of mucus that traps bicarbonate-rich fluid beneath it Protects the epithelial cells from acids, enzymes and abrasive materials Gastric pits lead into gastric glands

23. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.15b (b) Enlarged view of gastric pits and gastric glands Mucous neck cells Parietal cell Surface epithelium (mucous cells) Gastric pits Chief cell Enteroendocrine cell Gastric pit Gastric gland

24. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Gastric Glands Cell types Mucous neck cells (secrete thin, acidic mucus) Parietal cells Chief cells Enteroendocrine cells

25. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.15c (c) Location of the HCl-producing parietal cells and pepsin-secreting chief cells in a gastric gland Pepsinogen Mitochondria Pepsin HCl Chief cell Enteroendocrine cell Parietal cell

26. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Gastric Gland Secretions Glands in the fundus and body produce most of the gastric juice Parietal cell secretions HCl  pH 1.5–3.5 denatures protein in food, activates pepsin, and kills many bacteria Intrinsic factor Glycoprotein required for absorption of vitamin B 12 in small intestine

27. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Gastric Gland Secretions Chief cell secretions Inactive enzyme pepsinogen Converted to pepsin by HCl and by pepsin itself

28. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Homeostatic Imbalance Gastritis: inflammation caused by anything that breaches the mucosal barrier Peptic or gastric ulcers: erosion of the stomach wall Most are caused by Helicobacter pylori bacteria Cause 80% of gastric ulcers Treated successfully with antibiotics

29. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.16 Bacteria Mucosa layer of stomach (a) A gastric ulcer lesion (b) H. pylori bacteria

30. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Digestive Processes in the Stomach Physical digestion Denaturation (breakdown) of proteins Enzymatic digestion of proteins by pepsin (and rennin in infants) Secretion of intrinsic factor required for absorption of vitamin B 12 Lack of intrinsic factor  pernicious anemia Delivers chyme to the small intestine

31. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Regulation of Gastric Secretion Regulated by CNS and hormonal mechanisms Events occur in three phases: 1.Cephalic (reflex) phase: few minutes before food entry: sight, smell, taste or thought of food initiates gastric secretion Prepares the stomach to receive food

32. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Regulation of Gastric Secretion 2. Gastric phase: lasts for 3–4 hours after food enters the stomach (distending stomach) Stimulates stretch receptors Gastrin is released increasing gastric secretion production Distension and gastrin increase force of contraction 3.Intestinal phase: brief stimulatory effect as partially digested food enters the duodenum, followed by inhibitory effects to slow gastric activity down giving the intestine time to do its job

33. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.19 1 Propulsion: Peristaltic waves move from the fundus toward the pylorus. 23 Grinding: The most vigorous peristalsis and mixing action occur close to the pylorus. Retropulsion: The pyloric end of the stomach acts as a pump that delivers small amounts of chyme into the duodenum, simultaneously forcing most of its contained material backward into the stomach. Pyloric valve closed Pyloric valve closed Pyloric valve slightly opened

34. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Regulation of Gastric Emptying As chyme enters the duodenum in 3 ml spurts Receptors respond to stretch and chemical signals Enterogastric reflex and enterogastrones inhibit gastric secretion and duodenal filling Carbohydrate-rich chyme moves quickly through the duodenum Fatty chyme remains in the duodenum 6 hours or more

35. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Small Intestine: Gross Anatomy Major organ of digestion and absorption 2 – 4 m (7-13 ft) long; from pyloric sphincter to ileocecal valve Three Subdivisions 1.Duodenum – contains the bile duct and main pancreatic duct 2.Jejunum 3.Ileum

36. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.1 Mouth (oral cavity) Tongue Esophagus Liver Gallbladder Anus Duodenum Jejunum Ileum Small intestine Parotid gland Sublingual gland Submandibular gland Salivary glands Pharynx Stomach Pancreas (Spleen) Transverse colon Descending colon Ascending colon Cecum Sigmoid colon Rectum Vermiform appendix Anal canal Large intestine

37. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.21 Jejunum Mucosa with folds Cystic duct Duodenum Hepatopancreatic ampulla and sphincter Gallbladder Right and left hepatic ducts of liver Bile duct and sphincter Main pancreatic duct and sphincter Pancreas Tail of pancreas Head of pancreas Common hepatic duct Major duodenal papilla Accessory pancreatic duct

38. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Structural Modifications Increase surface area of proximal part for nutrient absorption Circular folds (plicae circulares) Villi Microvilli Circular folds Permanent ridged Force chyme to slowly spiral through lumen

39. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.22a Vein carrying blood to hepatic portal vessel Muscle layers Circular folds Villi (a) Lumen

40. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Structural Modifications Villi Motile fingerlike extensions of the mucosa Villus epithelium Simple columnar absorptive cells (enterocytes) Goblet cells

41. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Structural Modifications Microvilli Projections (brush border) of absorptive cells Contain brush border enzymes which complete carbohydrate and protein digestion in the small intestine

42. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.22b (b) Absorptive cells Lacteal Intestinal crypt Mucosa associated lymphoid tissue Muscularis mucosae Duodenal gland Submucosa Enteroendocrine cells Venule Lymphatic vessel Goblet cell Blood capillaries Vilus Microvilli (brush border)

43. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Intestinal Juice Secreted in response to distension or irritation of the mucosa Slightly alkaline and isotonic with blood plasma Largely water, enzyme-poor, but contains mucus Facilitates transport and absorption of nutrients

44. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Liver Largest gland in the body Four lobes — right, left, caudate, and quadrate

45. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Liver Falciform ligament Separates the (larger) right and (smaller) left lobes Suspends liver from the diaphragm and anterior abdominal wall Round ligament (ligamentum teres) Remnant of fetal umbilical vein along free edge of falciform ligament

46. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.24a Sternum Nipple Liver Right lobe of liver Gallbladder (a) Bare area Falciform ligament Left lobe of liver Round ligament (ligamentum teres)

47. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.24b Lesser omentum (in fissure) Left lobe of liver (b) Porta hepatis containing hepatic artery (left) and hepatic portal vein (right) Quadrate lobe of liver Ligamentum teres Gallbladder Hepatic vein (cut) Sulcus for inferior vena cava Caudate lobe of liver Bare area Bile duct (cut) Right lobe of liver Sternum Nipple Liver

48. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Liver: Associated Structures Lesser omentum anchors liver to stomach Hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein Bile ducts Common hepatic duct leaves the liver Cystic duct connects to gallbladder Bile duct formed by the union of the above two ducts

49. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.21 Jejunum Mucosa with folds Cystic duct Duodenum Hepatopancreatic ampulla and sphincter Gallbladder Right and left hepatic ducts of liver Bile duct and sphincter Main pancreatic duct and sphincter Pancreas Tail of pancreas Head of pancreas Common hepatic duct Major duodenal papilla Accessory pancreatic duct

50. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Liver: Microscopic Anatomy Liver lobules Hexagonal structural and functional units Filter and process blood Composed of hepatocytes (liver cells) Longitudinal central vein

51. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.25a, b (a)(b) Lobule Central veinConnective tissue septum

52. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Liver: Microscopic Anatomy Portal triad at each corner of lobule Bile duct receives bile from bile canaliculi Portal arteriole is a branch of the hepatic artery Hepatic venule is a branch of the hepatic portal vein Liver sinusoids are leaky capillaries between hepatic plates Kupffer cells (hepatic macrophages) in liver sinusoids

53. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 23.25c (c) Interlobular veins (to hepatic vein) Central vein Sinusoids Portal triad Plates of hepatocytes Portal vein Fenestrated lining (endothelial cells) of sinusoids Bile duct (receives bile from bile canaliculi) Bile duct Portal arteriole Portal venule Hepatic macrophages in sinusoid walls Bile canaliculi

54. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Liver: Microscopic Anatomy Hepatocyte functions Process bloodborne nutrients Store fat-soluble vitamins Perform detoxification Produce ~900 ml bile per day

55. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Bile Yellow-green, alkaline solution containing Bile salts: function in fat emulsification and absorption Bilirubin: pigment formed from heme Cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids, and electrolytes

56. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Bile Enterohepatic circulation Recycles bile salts Bile salts  duodenum  reabsorbed from ileum  hepatic portal blood  liver  secreted into bile

57. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Gallbladder Thin-walled muscular sac on the ventral surface of the liver Stores and concentrates bile by absorbing its water and ions Releases bile via the cystic duct, which flows into the bile duct