1. Lecture slides prepared for “Business Data Communications”, 7/e, by William Stallings and Tom Case, Chapter 17 “Wireless WANs”.

2. Chapter 17
Wireless WANs
We have entered the post-PC era. In 2011, more smartphones were sold than
personal computers, and Web services/applications made up the vast majority
of the new software that was developed. The proliferation of mobile devices and
Web applications underscores the fact that electronic information systems affect
every aspect of our lives, and it is increasingly bothersome to be tethered to these
systems by wires. Wireless communications offers us mobility and much more.

3. Reasons for Wireless Networks
Wireless communications is likely to be viewed as an essential part of an enterprise network infrastructure when:
Mobile communication is needed
Communication must take place in a hostile or difficult terrain that makes wired communication difficult or impossible
A communication system must be deployed quickly
Communication facilities must be installed at low initial cost
The same information must be broadcast to many locations
Wireless communications is likely to be viewed as an essential part of an enterprise
network infrastructure when
• Mobile communication is needed.
• Communication must take place in a hostile or difficult terrain that makes
wired communication difficult or impossible.
• A communication system must be deployed quickly.
• Communication facilities must be installed at low initial cost.
• The same information must be broadcast to many locations.

4. Disadvantages of Wireless Networks
Operates in a less controlled environment, so is more susceptible to interference, signal loss, noise, and eavesdropping
Generally, wireless facilities have lower data rates than guided facilities
Frequencies can be more easily reused with guided media than with wireless media
However, business network designers cannot overlook the disadvantages
of wireless communications relative to guided media such as twisted pair, coaxial
cable, or optical fiber:
• Wireless communication operates in a less controlled environment and is therefore
more susceptible to interference, signal loss, noise, and eavesdropping.
• Generally, wireless facilities have lower data rates than guided facilities.
• Frequencies can be more easily reused with guided media than with wireless
media.
In this chapter we consider wide area wireless systems, including mobile telephony,
third- and fourth-generation wireless systems, and satellite communications.
Wireless LANs are discussed in Chapter 14.

5. Cellular Wireless Networks
One of the most revolutionary developments in telecommunications
Supports users in locations that are not easily served by wired networks
Used for mobile telephones, personal communications systems, wireless Internet and wireless Web applications, and more
Of all the significant advances in data communications and telecommunications,
one of the most revolutionary is the development of cellular networks. Cellular
technology is the foundation of mobile wireless communications and supports users
in locations that are not easily served by wired networks. It is the underlying technology
for mobile telephones, personal communications systems, wireless Internet
and mobile Web applications, and much more.
Cellular radio is a technique that was developed to increase the capacity available
for mobile radio telephone service. Prior to the introduction of cellular radio,
mobile radio telephone service was only provided by a high-power transmitter/
receiver. A typical system would support about 25 channels with an effective radius
of about 80 km. The way to increase the capacity of the system is to use lower-power
transmitters with shorter radius and to use numerous transmitters/receivers.

6. Cellular Network Organization
Uses multiple low-power transmitters (≤100W)
Areas divided into cells, each one served by its own antenna
Each cell is allocated a band of frequencies, and is served by a base station (BS) consisting of transmitter, receiver, and control unit
Adjacent cells are assigned different frequencies to avoid interference or crosstalk
Cells sufficiently distant from each other can use the same frequency band
The essence of a cellular network is the use of multiple low-power transmitters, on
the order of 100 W or less. Because the range of such a transmitter is small, an area
can be divided into cells, each one served by its own antenna. Each cell is allocated
a band of frequencies and is served by a base station (BS), consisting of transmitter,
receiver, and control unit. Adjacent cells are assigned different frequencies to avoid
interference or crosstalk. However, cells sufficiently distant from each other can use
the same frequency band.

7. Cellular Geometries
The first design decision to make is the shape of cells to cover an area. A matrix
of square cells would be the simplest layout to define (Figure 17.1a). However, this
geometry is not ideal. As a mobile user within a cell moves toward the cell’s boundaries,
it is best if all of the adjacent antennas are equidistant. This simplifies the task
of determining when to switch the user to an adjacent antenna and which antenna
to choose. A hexagonal pattern provides for equidistant antennas (Figure 17.1b). In
practice, a precise hexagonal pattern is not used. Variations from the ideal are due
to topographical limitations, local signal propagation conditions, and practical limitations
on sitting antennas.
A wireless cellular system limits the opportunity to use the same frequency for
different communications because the signals, not being constrained, can interfere
with one another even if geographically separated. Systems supporting a large number
of communications simultaneously need mechanisms to conserve spectrum.

8. Frequency Reuse Each cell has a base transceiver
Transmission power is carefully controlled to allow communication within the cell using a given frequency while limiting the power at that frequency that escapes the cell into adjacent ones
Generally 10 to 50 frequencies are assigned to each cell
In a cellular system, each cell has a base transceiver. The transmission
power is carefully controlled (to the extent that it is possible in the highly
variable mobile communication environment) to allow communication within the
cell using a given frequency while limiting the power at that frequency that escapes
the cell into adjacent ones. The objective is to use the same frequency in other
nearby (but not adjacent) cells, thus allowing the frequency to be used for multiple
simultaneous conversations. Generally, 10–50 frequencies are assigned to each cell,
depending on the traffic expected.

9. Frequency Reuse Patterns
The essential issue is to determine how many cells must intervene between
two cells using the same frequency so that the two cells do not interfere with each
other. Various patterns of frequency reuse are possible. Figure 17.2 shows some
examples. If the pattern consists of N cells and each cell is assigned the same number
of frequencies, each cell can have K /N frequencies, where K is the total number
of frequencies allotted to the system.
Several parameters are typically considered when determining frequency reuse.
These include the radius of a cell (R ), the distance between the centers of adjacent
cells (d = √3R ), the minimum distance between centers of cells that use the same
band of frequencies (D ), and additional parameters associated with frequency reuse

10. Approaches used to cope with traffic build-up:
Increasing Capacity
Approaches used to cope with traffic build-up:
Adding new channels
Frequency borrowing
Cell splitting
Cell sectoring
Microcells
In time, as more customers use the system, traffic may
build up so that there are not enough frequencies assigned to a cell to handle its
calls. A number of approaches have been used to cope with this situation, including
the following:
• Adding new channels: Typically, when a system is set up in a region, not all
of the channels are used, and growth and expansion can be managed in an
orderly fashion by adding new channels.
• Frequency borrowing: In the simplest case, frequencies are taken from
adjacent cells by congested cells. The frequencies can also be assigned to cells
dynamically.
• Cell splitting: In practice, the distribution of traffic and topographic features
is not uniform, and this presents opportunities for capacity increase. Cells
in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells. Generally, the original
cells are about 6.5–13 km in size. The smaller cells can themselves be split;
however, 1.5-km cells are close to the practical minimum size as a general
solution (but see the subsequent discussion of microcells). To use a smaller
cell, the power level used must be reduced to keep the signal within the cell.
Also, as the mobile units move, they pass from cell to cell, which requires
transferring of the call from one base transceiver to another. This process
is called a handoff . As the cells get smaller, these handoffs become more
frequent. A radius reduction by a factor of F reduces the coverage area and
increases the required number of BSs by a factor of F 2 .
• Cell sectoring: With cell sectoring, a cell is divided into a number of wedge shaped
sectors, each with its own set of channels, typically three or six sectors
per cell. Each sector is assigned a separate subset of the cell’s channels, and
directional antennas at the BS are used to focus on each sector.
• Microcells: As cells become smaller, antennas move from the tops of tall buildings
or hills, to the tops of small buildings or the sides of large buildings, and
finally to lamp posts, where they form microcells. Each decrease in cell size
is accompanied by a reduction in the radiated power levels from the BS and
the mobile units. Microcells are useful in city streets, in congested areas along
highways, and inside large public buildings.

11. Table 17.1 Typical Parameters for Macrocells and Microcells
Table 17.1 suggests typical parameters for traditional cells, called macrocells,
and microcells with current technology. The average delay spread refers to
multipath delay spread (i.e., the same signal follows different paths and there is
a time delay between the earliest and latest arrival of the signal at the receiver).
As indicated, the use of smaller cells enables the use of lower power and provides
superior propagation conditions.

12. Cellular System Overview
Figure 17.4 shows the principal elements of a cellular system. In the approximate
center of each cell is a BS. The BS includes an antenna, a controller, and a number
of transceivers, all of which are used for communicating on the channels assigned
to that cell. The controller is used to handle the call process between the mobile
unit and the rest of the network. At any time, a number of mobile user units may
be active and moving about within a cell, communicating with the BS. Each BS
is connected to a mobile telecommunications switching office (MTSO), with one
MTSO serving multiple BSs. Typically, the link between an MTSO and a BS is
by a wire line, although a wireless link is also possible. The MTSO connects calls
between mobile units. The MTSO is also connected to the public telephone or telecommunications
network and can make a connection between a fixed subscriber
to the public network and a mobile subscriber to the cellular network. The MTSO
assigns the voice channel to each call, performs handoffs, and monitors the call for
billing information.

13. Example of Mobile Cellular Call
The use of a cellular system is fully automated and requires no action on the
part of the user other than placing or answering a call. Two types of channels are
available between the mobile unit and the BS: control channels and traffic channels.
Control channels are used to exchange information having to do with setting up
and maintaining calls and with establishing a relationship between a mobile unit
and the nearest BS. Traffic channels carry a voice or data connection between users.
Figure 17.5 illustrates the steps in a typical call between two mobile users within an
area controlled by a single MTSO:
• Mobile unit initialization: When the mobile unit is turned on, it scans and
selects the strongest setup control channel used for this system (Figure 17.5a).
Cells with different frequency bands repetitively broadcast on different setup
channels. The receiver selects the strongest setup channel and monitors that
channel. The effect of this procedure is that the mobile unit has automatically
selected the BS antenna of the cell within which it will operate. Then a handshake
takes place between the mobile unit and the MTSO controlling this cell,
through the BS in this cell. The handshake is used to identify the user and register
its location. As long as the mobile unit is on, this scanning procedure is
repeated periodically to account for the motion of the unit. If the unit enters a
new cell, then a new BS is selected. In addition, the mobile unit is monitoring
for pages, discussed subsequently.
• Mobile-originated call: A mobile unit originates a call by sending the number
of the called unit on the preselected setup channel (Figure 17.5b). The receiver
at the mobile unit first checks that the setup channel is idle by examining
information in the forward (from the BS) channel. When an idle is detected,
the mobile may transmit on the corresponding reverse (to BS) channel. The
BS sends the request to the MTSO.
• Paging: The MTSO then attempts to complete the connection to the called
unit. The MTSO sends a paging message to certain BSs depending on the
called mobile number (Figure 17.5c). Each BS transmits the paging signal on
its own assigned setup channel.
• Call accepted: The called mobile unit recognizes its number on the setup channel
being monitored and responds to that BS, which sends the response to the
MTSO. The MTSO sets up a circuit between the calling and called BSs. At the
same time, the MTSO selects an available traffic channel within each BS’s cell
and notifies each BS, which in turn notifies its mobile unit (Figure 17.5d). The
two mobile units tune to their respective assigned channels.
• Ongoing call: While the connection is maintained, the two mobile units
exchange voice or data signals, going through their respective BSs and the
MTSO (Figure 17.5e).
• Handoff: If a mobile unit moves out of range of one cell and into the range of
another during a connection, the traffic channel has to change to one assigned
to the BS in the new cell (Figure 17.5f). The system makes this change without
either interrupting the call or alerting the user.
Other functions performed by the system but not illustrated in Figure 17.5
include the following:
• Call blocking: During the mobile-initiated call stage, if all the traffic channels
assigned to the nearest BS are busy, then the mobile unit makes a preconfigured
number of repeated attempts. After a certain number of failed tries, a
busy tone is returned to the user.
• Call termination: When one of the two users hangs up, the MTSO is informed
and the traffic channels at the two BSs are released.
• Call drop: During a connection, because of interference or weak signal spots in
certain areas, if the BS cannot maintain the minimum required signal strength
for a certain period of time, the traffic channel to the user is dropped and the
MTSO is informed.
• Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile subscriber: The MTSO connects to
the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Thus, the MTSO can set up
a connection between a mobile user in its area and a fixed subscriber via the
telephone network. Further, the MTSO can connect to a remote MTSO via
the telephone network or via dedicated lines and set up a connection between
a mobile user in its area and a remote mobile user.

14. Mobile Telephony First Generation Second Generation Third Generation
Analog voice communication using frequency modulation
A widely used system was the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) used through the 1980’s and into the 2000’s
Second Generation
Uses digital techniques and time-division multiple access (TDMA) or code-division multiple access (CDMA)
Advanced call processing features are used as well
Third Generation
Evolved from several second-generation wireless systems
Fourth Generation
Currently being rolled out
One can categorize mobile telephone systems into generations. The first-generation
systems are based on analog voice communication using frequency modulation.
A widely used first-generation system was the Advanced Mobile Phone System
(AMPS), which was widely used in North and South America, Australia, and China
through the 1980s and into the 2000s. Due to rapid adoption of first generation
mobile telephones by consumers and businesses, systems that use the spectrum
more efficiently became necessary to reduce congestion. This requirement was
addressed by the second generation, which uses digital techniques and time
division multiple access (TDMA) or code division multiple access (CDMA) for
channel access. Advanced call processing features are present as well. The third
generation evolved from several second-generation wireless systems and fourth generation
systems are currently being rolled out.
In this section, we describe the basic concept of multiple access, which is a key
design element of any cellular system.

15. Multiple Access Four ways to divide the spectrum among active users:1
Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) 2
Time-division multiple access (TDMA) 3
Code-division multiple access (CDMA) 4
Space-division multiple access (SDMA)
The primary motivation for the transition from the first-generation cellular
telephones to the second was the need to conserve spectrum. The first-generation
systems were extremely successful and the number of subscribers had been growing
exponentially for years. However, use (and provider profit) is constrained by spectrum
capacity. Hence there is a premium on the efficient use of spectrum. In the
United States this interest has not been dampened by the recent policy of the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) to auction spectrum (for very large sums of
money) rather than give it away. For these reasons, it is important to understand
how the spectrum is divided among users in current and planned systems. There are
basically four ways to divide the spectrum among active users: frequency division
multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), code division
multiple access (CDMA), and space division multiple access (SDMA). The first two
types are discussed in Chapter 14; the remaining two we treat here.
Space division multiplexing is simply the idea of using the same spectral band
in two physically separate places. A simple example is frequency reuse in cells, which
is discussed in this chapter. The same frequency can be used in two different cells
as long as the cells are sufficiently far apart so that their signals do not interfere.
Another form of space division that has been proposed for cellular telephony is
to use highly directional antennas so that the same frequency may be used for two
communications. This idea can be carried further by using steered beam antennas;
these antennas can actually be aimed electronically and dynamically at a specific
user. The ideas behind code division multiplexing are a little more complex, but
because of their importance, we discuss them next.

16. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Based on direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
Provides immunity from various kinds of noise and multipath distortion
The earliest applications of spread spectrum were military, where it was used for its immunity to jamming
Can be used for hiding and encrypting signals
Several users can independently use the same (higher) bandwidth with very little interference
CDMA is based on direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS). DSSS, which was
briefly introduced in Chapter 14, is grounded in the following rather counterintuitive
notion. We take a signal that we wish to communicate that has a data rate of,
say, D bits per second and we convert it for transmission into a longer message and
transmit it at a higher rate say, kD , where k is called the spreading factor . It might
be about 100. Several things can be gained from this apparent waste of spectrum.
For example, we can gain immunity from various kinds of noise and multipath
distortion.
The earliest applications of spread spectrum were military, where it was used
for its immunity to jamming. It can also be used for hiding and encrypting signals.
However, of interest to us is that several users can independently use the same
(higher) bandwidth with very little interference.

17. CDMA Example Figure 17.6 shows the codes for three
users, A, B, and C, each of which is communicating with the same BS receiver, R.
In practice, the CDMA receiver can filter out the contribution from
unwanted users or they appear as low-level noise. However, if there are many users
competing for the channel with the user the receiver is trying to listen to, or if
the signal power of one or more competing signals is too high, perhaps because it
is very near the receiver (the “near/far” problem), the system breaks down. The
coding gain may be greater than 100 so that the ability of our decoder to filter out
unwanted codes can be quite effective. A more detailed description of CDMA is
provided in Appendix M.

18. Cellular Multiple Access Schemes
Figure 17.7 illustrates the differences among FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA. In
summary, with FDMA, each user communicates with the BS on its own narrow
frequency band. For TDMA, the users share a wider frequency band and take turns
communicating with the BS. For CDMA, many users can simultaneously use the
same wide frequency band. Each user’s signal is scrambled using a unique code so
that it resembles random background noise to other users. The BS uses the same
codes to unscramble the different user signals. CDMA allows more users to share a
given bandwidth than does FDMA or TDMA.
Besides the pure forms of splitting the channel (FDMA, TDMA, CDMA,
SDMA), hybrids are also possible. For example, the second-generation system known
as Global System for Mobile communications (GSM) uses FDM to divide the allotted
spectrum into 124 carriers. Each carrier is then split in up to eight parts using TDMA.
The number of potential users in any one cell is potentially enormous. Any subscriber
in the area could enter the cell; in addition, a whole world of roamers could show
up. Fortunately, the number of customers who are in a given cell at one time and are
using their units for calls is usually quite modest. The problem is how to determine
which users are active in a cell and how to assign them to vacant subchannels. Mobiles/
subscribers entering a cell by a handoff can be allocated a channel directly through the
mobile switching office. The question remains what to do about mobiles/subscribers
that are just becoming active. A common answer is to use a random access channel,
in which any user can transmit at any time. If two users transmit at approximately the
same time, their signals interfere and each must retransmit. Since the message from
a mobile/subscriber announcing its presence is quite short and infrequent, the poor
utilization that is characteristic of random access channels is not a problem. Similarly,
control information originating from a mobile/subscriber can be carried in the same
random access mode. One control message is to assign the mobile/subscriber a dedicated
channel when a conversation or data transfer is necessary.
So the assignment of channels and other control functions that are relatively
short and rare can be initiated using a random access method, while the higher traffic
activities can be carried out in dedicated conversation subchannels derived
by a multiple access scheme.
The primary multiple access schemes used in cellular telephony (and satellite
communications as well) are FDMA (e.g., the first-generation system AMPS),
TDMA (e.g., Digital AMPS, the digital successor to AMPS, and GSM, which
also uses FDM), and CDMA, pioneered by Qualcomm. This listing is in order of
increasing complexity of implementation and also of increasing spectral efficiency.
In Digital AMPS the 30-kHz channels of AMPS are divided into subchannels using
TDM, giving about a 3:1 improvement in spectrum utilization. Qualcomm claims a
tenfold improvement for CDMA systems over AMPS. CDMA uses soft handoff ,
wherein the power from the codes in the old and new cells is summed by the mobile.
In the other direction, the two signals received by the two base transceivers can be
compared to make better communication.
In the United States there has been debate over the access method to use.
FDMA is clearly too wasteful of spectrum for contemporary systems. Moreover,
with the development of inexpensive, high-performance digital signal processing
chips, FDMA is no longer necessarily easier to implement than TDMA. But the
choice between TDMA and CDMA is a matter debated. Adherents of TDMA
argue that the theoretical advantages of the CDMA scheme are hard to realize in
practice and that there is a lot more successful experience with TDMA. CDMA
proponents argue that the theoretical advantages can be realized and that CDMA
offers additional features as well, such as increased range. The TDMA systems
achieved an early lead in actual implementations worldwide. But large wireless
providers soon began to sign up with CDMA vendors, making CDMA the access
method of choice for third-generation systems.

19. Third Generation Systems
Intended to provide high speed wireless communications for multimedia, data, and video in addition to voice
Reflects trend toward universal personal telecommunications and communications access
Personal communications services (PCSs) and personal communication networks (PCNs) are objectives for 3G wireless
Planned technology is digital using TDMA or CDMA to provide efficient spectrum use and high capacity
The objective of the third generation of wireless communication is to provide fairly
high speed wireless communications to support multimedia, data, and video in
addition to voice.
Competition among service providers has spawned a wide variety of 3G networks
and services that meet or exceed the minimum capabilities outlined by the ITU
in Many vendors have focused their mobile product offerings around the
concepts of universal personal telecommunications and universal communications
access. The first concept refers to the ability of a person to identify himself or herself
easily in terms of a single account, and use conveniently any communication
system in an entire country, over a continent, or even globally. The second refers
to the capability of using one’s computing device in a wide variety of environments
to connect to information services (e.g., to have a portable device that will work
in the office, on the street, and on airplanes equally well). This ongoing revolution
in personal computing has shaped the evolution of wireless communications in
several fundamental ways.
Personal communications services (PCSs) and personal communication networks
(PCNs) are names attached to these concepts of global wireless communications,
and they also form objectives for third-generation wireless. Generally
speaking, PCSs and PCNs have relied on TDMA or CDMA to provide efficient
use of the spectrum and high capacity.
PCS handsets are designed to be low power and relatively small and light.
Several efforts have been made internationally to provide universal PCS. For
example, worldwide frequency allocations have been made for second-generation
cordless telephones (CT-2) in the 800-MHz region and for more advanced personal
communications in the 1.7–2.2-GHz band of the spectrum.
The 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC 92) identified
worldwide allocations for future public land mobile telecommunications systems
(FPLMTS). This concept includes both terrestrial and satellite-based services. In
addition, allocations were made for low-earth-orbiting satellite (LEOS) services
that can be used to support personal communications.
Some proposed technologies that fall under the umbrella of PCS are American
Digital Cellular System, Japanese Digital Cellular System, second-generation cordless
telephones (CT-2), the European Community’s GSM for digital cellular service,
and Digital European Cordless Telephone (DECT). These involve advanced
wireless telephony, which may also be supported by LEOSs and geostationary earth
orbit satellites (GEOSs), as well as by terrestrial antennas. Among the technologies
that have become the hallmark of third-generation services are mobile telephones
(“smartphones”) and other mobile devices that can access Web services.

20. The ITU’s International Mobile Telecommunications for the year 2000 (IMT-2000) initiative defined the ITU’s view of third generation capabilities as follows:
Voice quality comparable to the PSTN
144 kbps data rate available to users in high-speed motor vehicles over large areas
384 kbps data rate available to pedestrians standing or moving slowly over small areas
Support for Mbps for office use
Support for both packet and circuit switched data services
Adaptive Internet interface to reflect efficiently the common asymmetry between inbound and outbound traffic
More efficient use of the spectrum in general
Support for a wide variety of mobile equipment
Flexibility to allow the introduction of new services and technologies
The ITU’s International Mobile Telecommunications for
the year 2000 (IMT-2000) initiative defined the ITU’s view of third-generation
capabilities as follows:
• Voice quality comparable to the PSTN
• 144-kbps data rate available to users in high-speed motor vehicles over large
areas
• 384-kbps data rate available to pedestrians standing or moving slowly over
small areas
• Support (to be phased in) for Mbps for office use
• Support for both packet-switched and circuit-switched data services
• An adaptive interface to the Internet to reflect efficiently the common asymmetry
between inbound and outbound traffic
• More efficient use of the available spectrum in general
• Support for a wide variety of mobile equipment
• Flexibility to allow the introduction of new services and technologies

21. Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)
A universal, open standard developed by the WAP Forum to provide mobile users the ability to access telephony and information services including the Internet and the Web
Designed to work with all wireless technologies
Based on existing Internet standards and includes security facilities
The Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a universal, open standard developed
by the WAP Forum to provide mobile users to access telephony and information
services including the Internet and the Web. WAP is designed to work with all
wireless network technologies (e.g., GSM, CDMA, and TDMA). It is also based on
existing Internet standards, such as IP, XML, HTML, and HTTP, as much as possible,
and it includes security facilities. Ericsson, Motorola, Nokia, and Phone.com
established the WAP Forum in 1997; it subsequently consolidated into the Open
Mobile Alliance in 2002, and it is this group which oversees the evolution of WAP.
The WAP Forum released v1.1 of WAP in June 1999; as of 2012, WAP 2.0 was the
most current version of WAP.
WAP was developed to address the limitations of cellular and other wireless
networks for providing data services to mobile devices. Relative to personal
computers, mobile devices have traditionally had limited processors, memory,
and battery life. On some devices, the user interface is also limited, and the displays
are small. In comparison to wire-based WAN services, wireless networks
are characterized by relatively low bandwidth, high latency, and less predictable
availability and stability. Moreover, all these features vary widely from mobile
device to mobile device and from wireless network to wireless network. Finally,
mobile, wireless users have different expectations and needs from other information
systems users. For instance, mobile devices must be extremely easy to use,
often much easier than desktop workstations, laptops, and personal computers.
WAP was initially developed to deal with these challenges and its evolution has
paralleled the evolution of the mobile devices on which it runs.

22. WAP Specifications:
A programming model based on the WWW Programming Model
A markup language, the Wireless Markup Language (WML), adhering to XML
A specification of a small browser suitable for a mobile, wireless device
A lightweight communications protocol stack
A framework for wireless telephony applications (WTAs)
The WAP specification includes the following:
• A programming model based on the WWW Programming Model
• A markup language, the Wireless Markup Language (WML), adhering to XML
• A specification of a small browser suitable for a mobile, wireless device
• A lightweight communications protocol stack
• A framework for wireless telephony applications (WTAs)

23. WAP Programming Model
The WAP Programming Model is based on three elements: the client , the gateway ,
and the original server (Figure 17.8). HTTP is used between the gateway and the
original server to transfer content. The gateway acts as a proxy server for the wireless
domain. Its processor(s) provide services that offload the limited capabilities
of the hand-held, mobile, wireless terminals. For example, the gateway provides
Domain Name System (DNS) services, converts between WAP protocol stack and
the WWW stack (HTTP and TCP/IP), encodes information from the Web into a
more compact form that minimizes wireless communication, and, in the other direction,
decodes the compacted form into standard Web communication conventions.
The gateway also caches frequently requested information.

24. Wireless Markup Language
Does not assume a standard keyboard or a mouse as an input device
Designed to work with telephone keypads, styluses, and other input devices common to mobile, wireless communication
Documents are subdivided into small, well-defined units of user interaction called cards
Users navigate by moving back and forth between cards
Uses a small set of markup tags appropriate to telephony-based systems
WML does not assume a standard keyboard or a mouse as an input device. It is
designed to work with telephone keypads, styluses, and other input devices common
to mobile, wireless communication. WML documents are subdivided into
small, well-defined units of user interaction called cards . Users navigate by moving
back and forth between cards. WML uses a small set of markup tags appropriate to
telephony-based systems.

25. Microbrowser
Based on a user interface model appropriate for mobile, wireless devices
Traditional 12-key phone keypad is used to enter alphanumeric characters
Users navigate among the WML cards using up and down scroll keys rather than a mouse
Navigation features familiar from the Web (e.g., Back, Home, and Bookmark) are provided as well
The microbrowser specified in the WAP1.1 release was designed to provide users
with Internet access using a traditional 12-key phone keypad to enter alphanumeric
characters. Users navigate among the WML cards using up and down scroll keys
rather than a mouse. Navigation features familiar from the Web (e.g., Back, Home,
and Bookmark) are provided as well.
Today’s microbrowsers are more robust. These have a variety of names
including mobile browser, minibrowser, or wireless Internet browser (WIB). All
are browsers designed for use on a mobile device such as mobile phones, tablets, or
personal digital assistants (PDAs).
Microbrowsers are optimized to effectively display Web content on the small
screens of portable devices. The browser software is typically small and efficient
in order to accommodate the limited memory capacity of wireless devices and the
low-bandwidth connections of the networks that they use to access the Internet.
In essence, mobile browsers have traditionally been stripped-down Web browsers.
However, since the mid-2000s, some mobile browsers have evolved to handle more
recent technologies such as Ajax, CSS 2.1, and JavaScript.
The Mobile Web is another name for the collection of Web sites and wireless
portals that have been designed for access from mobile browsers. Some automatically
create “mobile” versions of their Web pages for users who use mobile devices
to access the Web site. A mobile browser usually connects via cellular network and/
or via a wireless LAN, using standard HTTP. Most display Web pages written in
HTML, WML, or XHTML Mobile Profile (WAP 2.0).

26. Wireless Telephony Applications (WTAs)
Provides an interface to the local and wide area telephone systems
Using WTA application developers can use the microbrowser to originate telephone calls and to respond to events from the telephone network
WTA provides an interface to the local and wide area telephone systems. Thus,
using WTA, application developers can use the microbrowser to originate telephone
calls and to respond to events from the telephone network.

27. WAP Network Schematic
Figure 17.9 represents schematically a possible WAP configuration. There are three
networks: the Internet (excluding the wireless net), the PSTN, and a wireless network
(e.g., cellular or Wi-Fi). The client could be a hand-held, smartphone in the wireless
network. It communicates, in this example, with two gateways; one is the WAP Proxy
to the Internet. The WAP Proxy communicates on the device’s behalf with servers
on the Internet. The Proxy translates HTML information to WML, HTML, or WAP
2.0 and sends it to the device. Materials on the Mobile Web are passed directly to the
mobile device without translation. The other gateway, the WTA Server, is a gateway
to the PSTN so that the mobile device can access telephony-based functionality such
as call control, phone book access, and messaging through the microbrowser.

28. Fourth Generation (4G) Network Requirements
According to the ITU, an IMT-Advanced (or 4G) cellular system must fulfill a number of minimum requirements:
Be based on an all IP packet-switched network
Support peak data rates of up to 100 Mbps for high mobility mobile access and up to 1Gbps for low mobility access
Dynamically share and use the network resources to support more simultaneous users per cell
Support smooth handovers across heterogeneous networks
Support high quality of service for next generation multimedia applications
The ITU has issued directives for 4G networks. According to the ITU, an IMT Advanced
(or 4G) cellular system must fulfill a number of minimum requirements,
including the following:
• Be based on an all-IP packet-switched network.
• Support peak data rates of up to approximately 100 Mbps for high-mobility
mobile access and up to approximately 1 Gbps for low-mobility access such
local wireless access.
• Dynamically share and use the network resources to support more simultaneous
users per cell.
• Support smooth handovers across heterogeneous networks.
• Support high quality of service for next-generation multimedia applications.
By 2012, two systems emerged as the standard bearers for 4G networks: the
Mobile WiMAX standard and the long-term evolution (LTE) standard. The Mobile
WiMAX standard was launched in South Korea in 2006 and was adopted for use
in the U.S. Sprint Nextel beginning in The LTE standard was released in
Scandinavia in 2009 and has been available in the United States since 2010 from
MetroPCS and other cellular providers. LTE smartphones have been available
since 2011 and WiMAX smartphones since As of 2012, neither WiMAX nor
LTE smartphones were available in the European market.

29. Table 17.2 Third Generation (3G) versus Fourth Generation (4G) Networks
In contrast to earlier generations, 4G systems do not support traditional
circuit-switched telephony service, only IP telephony. And, as may be observed in
Table 17.2, the spread spectrum radio technologies that characterized 3G systems
are replaced in 4G systems by orthogonal FDMA (OFDMA) multicarrier transmission
and frequency domain equalization schemes.

30. Third Generation Versus Fourth Generation Cellular Networks
Figure illustrates several major differences between 3G and 4G cellular
networks. As may be observed in Figure 17.10a, the connections between BSs and
switching offices in 3G networks are typically cable-based, either copper or fiber
wires. Circuit switching is supported to enable voice connections between mobile
users and phones connected to the PSTN. Internet access in 3G networks may also
be routed through switching offices. By contrast, in 4G networks, IP telephony is
the norm as are IP packet-switched connections for Internet access. These are enabled
by wireless connections, such as WiMAX, between BSs and switching offices (see
Figure 17.10b). Connections among mobile users with 4G-capable smartphones
may never be routed over cable-based, circuit-switched connections—all communications
between them can be IP-based and handled by wireless links. This setup
facilitates deployment of mobile-to-mobile video call/video conferencing services
and the simultaneous delivery of voice and data services (such as Web browsing
while engaged in a phone call). 4G mobile users can still connect with 3G network
users and PSTN subscribers over cable/fiber circuit-switched connections between
the switching offices.

31. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)
Resembles CDMA spread spectrum in that users can achieve different data rates via the assignment of different spreading factors
Enables the assignment of a different number of spreading codes to each user
Can be described as a combination of frequency domain and time domain multiple access
Transmission resources are partitioned by time slots within an assigned frequency range
Considered to be highly suitable for broadband wireless networks
Advantages include scalability, MIMO friendliness, and ability to leverage channel frequency selectivity
New spectrum sharing schemes are important in 4G systems and these are bringing
FDMA, once viewed as a bandwidth waster, back to the table. The new multiple
access schemes include single-carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA), orthogonal FDMA
(OFDMA), interleaved FDMA, and multicarrier CDMA (MC-CDMA). These are
based on Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithms and frequency domain equalization
mechanisms. Collectively, these enable 4G service providers to control
bandwidth and spectrum in flexible ways. However, they also require advanced
capabilities such as dynamic channel allocation and traffic adaptive scheduling.
OFDMA resembles CDMA spread spectrum in that users can achieve different
data rates via the assignment of different spreading factors. It also enables the
assignment of a different number of spreading codes to each user. OFDMA can
also be described as a combination of frequency domain and time domain multiple
access. With OFDMA, transmission resources are partitioned by time slots within
an assigned frequency range.
OFDMA is considered to be highly suitable for broadband wireless networks.
It is used in WiMAX, the IEEE Wireless MAN standard, and IEEE
Mobile Wireless MAN networks. It is also used in LTE-Advance downlink channels.
Some of OFDMA’s major advantages include scalability, MIMO friendliness, and
ability to leverage channel frequency selectivity. A key advantage of the new 4G
techniques is that they require less complexity for equalization at the receiver. This
can be especially advantageous in MIMO environments where spatial multiplexing
transmission inherently requires high complexity equalization at the receiver.

32. 4G Network Evolution
Because they use new multiple access schemes such as OFDMA and support significantly higher uplink and downlink speeds, the rollout of 4G networks and services will also be tempered by the evolution of 4G capable smartphones
3G CDMA based solutions are likely to remain as the core cellular service offering for mobile operators while 4G technologies evolve and mature
With an ever increasing number of mobile device uses the migration period to 4G technologies is likely to be lengthy
4G networks, devices, and services are expected to evolve rapidly over the next
decade. As of 2012, 4G services were limited geographically and, in the United
States, were typically available only in larger urban areas. Because they use new
multiple access schemes such as OFDMA, and support significantly higher uplink
and downlink speeds, the rollout of 4G networks and services will also be tempered
by the evolution of 4G capable smartphones. For example, as of 2012, the iPhone
was not a 4G device. This meant that iPhone adherents had a choice between the
device and 4G services; they could not have both. 4G iPhones will undoubtedly be
in high demand when they become available, but millions of iPhone users will have
to buy the new phones to be able to connect to 4G networks.
Industry experts expect that CDMA and OFDM will coexist in cellular
networks into the 2020s. 3G CDMA-based solutions are likely to remain as the core
cellular service offering for mobile operators while 4G technologies evolve and
mature. Over time, the world’s wireless subscriber base will migrate to 4G technologies,
but with an ever-increasing number of mobile device uses, the migration
period is likely to be lengthy.

33. Satellite Communications
The heart of a satellite communications system is a satellite based antenna in a stable orbit above the earth
Two or more stations on or near the earth communicate via one or more satellites that serve as relay stations in space
The antenna systems on or near the earth are referred to as earth stations
Transmission from an earth station to the satellite is an uplink
Transmissions from the satellite to the earth station are downlinks
The transponder in the satellite takes an uplink signal and converts it to a downlink signal
Satellite communications is comparable in importance to optical fiber in the evolution
of telecommunications and data communications.
The heart of a satellite communications system is a satellite-based antenna in a
stable orbit above the earth. In a satellite communications system, two or more stations
on or near the earth communicate via one or more satellites that serve as relay
stations in space. The antenna systems on or near the earth are referred to as earth
stations . A transmission from an earth station to the satellite is referred to as uplink ,
whereas transmissions from the satellite to the earth station are downlink . The electronics
in the satellite that takes an uplink signal and converts it to a downlink signal
is called a transponder .

34. Geostationary Earth Orbit
The most common type of communications
satellite today is the geostationary earth orbit (GEO) satellite (GEOS), first proposed
by the science-fiction author Arthur C. Clarke in If the satellite is in a
circular orbit 35,863 km above the earth’s surface and rotates in the equatorial plane
of the earth, it will rotate at exactly the same angular speed as the earth and will
remain above the same spot on the equator as the earth rotates. Figure 17.11
depicts the GEO in scale with the size of the earth; the satellite symbols are intended
to suggest that there are many satellites in GEO, some of which are quite close to
each other.

35. Advantages of Geostationary Orbits
Satellite is stationary relative to the earth so there is no problem with frequency changes due to the relative motion of the satellite and antennas on earth (Doppler effect)
Tracking of the satellite by its earth stations is simplified
At 35,863 km above the earth, the satellite can communicate with roughly a fourth of the earth’s surface
Three satellites in GEO separated by 120o can cover most of the inhabited portions of the entire earth excluding only the areas near the north and south poles
The GEO has several advantages to recommend it:
• Because the satellite is stationary relative to the earth, there is no problem with
frequency changes due to the relative motion of the satellite and antennas on
earth (Doppler effect).
• Tracking of the satellite by its earth stations is simplified.
• At 35,863 km above the earth, the satellite can communicate with roughly a
fourth of the earth’s surface; three satellites in GEO separated by 120o can
cover most of the inhabited portions of the entire earth excluding only the
areas near the north and south poles.

36. Problems with Geostationary Orbits
Signal can get quite weak after traveling over 35,000 km
Polar regions and the far northern and southern hemispheres are poorly served by GEOSs
Even at the speed of light, the delay in sending a signal from a point on the equator beneath the satellite to the satellite and back is substantial
On the other hand, there are problems:
• The signal can get quite weak after traveling over 35,000 km.
• The polar regions and the far northern and southern hemispheres are poorly
served by GEOSs.
• Even at the speed of light, about 300,000 km/s, the delay in sending a signal
from a point on the equator beneath the satellite to the satellite and back is
substantial.

37. Low-Earth and Medium-Earth Orbits
The delay of communication between two locations on earth directly under
the satellite is in fact (2 * 35,863)/300, s. For other locations not
directly under the satellite, the delay is even longer. If the satellite link is used for
telephone communication, the added delay between when one person speaks and
the other responds is increased twofold, to almost 0.5 s. This is definitely noticeable.
Another feature of GEOSs is that they use their assigned frequencies over
a very large area. For point-to-multipoint applications such as broadcasting TV
programs, this can be desirable, but for point-to-point communications it is very
wasteful of spectrum. Special spot and steered beam antennas, which restrict the
area covered by the satellite’s signal, can be used to control the “footprint” or
signaling area. To solve some of these problems, orbits other than GEOs have
been designed for satellites. Low-earth-orbiting satellites (LEOSs) and medium earth-
orbiting satellites (MEOSs) are important for third-generation personal
communications.

38. LEO Characteristics Circular or slightly elliptical orbit < 2000 km
Orbit period is in the range of 1.5 to 2 hours
Diameter of coverage is about 8000 km
Round-trip signal propagation delay is < 20 ms
Maximum time that the satellite is visible from a fixed point on earth (above the radio horizon) is up to 20 minutes
System must be able to cope with large Doppler shifts, which change the frequency of the signal
Significant atmospheric drag on a LEO satellite results in gradual orbital deterioration
LEOSs (Figure 17.12a) have the following characteristics:
• Circular or slightly elliptical orbit at less than 2000 km. Proposed and actual
systems are in the range of 500–1500 km.
• The orbit period is in the range of 1.5–2 hours.
• The diameter of coverage is about 8000 km.
• Round-trip signal propagation delay is less than 20 ms.
• The maximum time that the satellite is visible from a fixed point on earth
(above the radio horizon) is up to 20 minutes.
• Because the motion of the satellite relative to a fixed point on earth is high,
the system must be able to cope with large Doppler shifts, which change the
frequency of the signal.
• The atmospheric drag on a LEOS is significant, resulting in gradual orbital
deterioration.
Practical use of this system requires that multiple orbital planes be used, each
with multiple satellites in orbit. Communication between two earth stations typically
will involve handing off the signal from one satellite to another.

39. LEO Advantages Reduced propagation delay
Received LEO signal is much stronger than that of GEO signals for the same transmission power
LEO coverage can be better localized so that spectrum can be better conserved
On the other hand, to provide broad coverage over 24 hours, many satellites are needed
LEOSs have a number of advantages over GEOSs. In addition to the reduced
propagation delay mentioned previously, a received LEOS signal is much stronger
than that of GEOS signals for the same transmission power. LEOS coverage can be
better localized so that spectrum can be better conserved. For this reason, this technology
is currently being proposed for communicating with mobile devices and with
personal computing devices that need stronger signals to function. On the other
hand, to provide broad coverage over 24 hours, many satellites are needed.

40. Little LEOs Big LEOs Types of LEOs
Intended to work at communication frequencies below 1 GHz using no more than 5 MHz of bandwidth and supporting data rates up to 10 kbps
Aimed at paging, tracking, and low-rate messaging
Orbcomm is an example
Big LEOs
Work at frequencies above GHz and support data rates up to a few megabits per second
Offer the same services as those of the small LEOs, with the addition of voice and positioning services
Globalstar is an example
A number of commercial proposals have been made to use clusters of LEOSs
to provide communications services. These proposals can be divided into two
categories:
• Little LEOS: Intended to work at communication frequencies below 1 GHz
using no more than 5 MHz of bandwidth and supporting data rates up to
10 kbps. These systems are aimed at paging, tracking, and low-rate messaging.
Orbcomm is an example of such a satellite system. It was the first (little) LEOS
in operation; its first two satellites were launched in April It is designed
for paging and burst communication and is optimized for handling small bursts
of data from 6 to 250 bytes in length. It is used by businesses to track trailers,
railcars, heavy equipment, and other remote and mobile assets. It can also
be used to monitor remote utility meters, oil and gas storage tanks, wells, and
pipelines. It can be used to stay in touch with remote workers anywhere in the
world as well. It uses frequencies in the range of – MHz to the
satellites, and in the range of – MHz from the satellites. It has well
over 30 satellites in low earth orbit. It supports subscriber data rates of 2.4 kbps
to the satellite and 4.8 kbps down.
• Big LEOS: Work at frequencies above 1 GHz and support data rates up to a few
Mbps. These systems tend to offer the same services as those of the small LEOS,
with the addition of voice and positioning services. Globalstar is one example of
a Big LEOS system. Its satellites are fairly rudimentary. Unlike some of the little
LEOS systems, it has no onboard processing or communications between satellites.
Most processing is done by the system’s earth stations. It uses CDMA as in
the CDMA cellular standard. It uses the S-Band (about 2 GHz) for the downlink
to mobile users. Globalstar is tightly integrated with traditional voice carriers. All
calls must be processed through earth stations. The satellite constellation consists
of 48 operating satellites and 8 spares. They are in 1413-km-high orbits.

41. MEO Characteristics
Circular orbit at an altitude in the range of 5000 to 12,000 km
Orbit period is about 6 hours
Diameter of coverage is from 10,000 to 15,000 km
Round trip signal propagation delay is less than 50 ms
Maximum time that the satellite is visible from a fixed point on earth (above the radio horizon) is a few hours
Require fewer hand-offs than LEOSs
MEOSs (Figure 17.12b) have the following characteristics:
• Circular orbit at an altitude in the range of 5000–12,000 km.
• The orbit period is about 6 hours.
• The diameter of coverage is from 10,000 to 15,000 km.
• Round-trip signal propagation delay is less than 50 ms.
• The maximum time that the satellite is visible from a fixed point on earth
(above the radio horizon) is a few hours.
MEOSs require much fewer handoffs than LEOSs. While propagation
delay to earth from such satellites and the power required are greater than for
LEOSs, they are still substantially less than for GEOSs. New ICO, established in
January 1995, proposed a MEOS system. Launches began in Twelve satellites,
including two spares, are planned in 10,400-km-high orbits. The satellites
will be divided equally between two planes tilted 45Åã to the equator. Proposed
applications are digital voice, data, facsimile, high-penetration notification, and
messaging services.

42. Satellite Communication Configurations
Figure depicts in a general way two common configurations for satellite
communication. In the first, the satellite is being used to provide a point-to-point
link between two distant ground-based antennas. In the second, the satellite provides
communications between one ground-based transmitter and a number of
ground-based receivers.

43. Satellite Network Applications
Among the most important applications for satellites are:
Television distribution
Satellite radio services
Long-distance telephone transmission
Private business networks
The communications satellite is a technological revolution as important as fiber optics.
Among the most important applications for satellites are the following:
• Television distribution
• Satellite radio services
• Long-distance telephone transmission
• Private business networks
Because of their broadcast nature, satellites are well suited to television distribution
and are being used extensively for this purpose in the United States and
throughout the world. In its traditional use, a network provides programming from
a central location. Programs are transmitted to the satellite and then broadcast
down to a number of stations, which then distribute the programs to individual
viewers. Another application of satellite technology to television distribution is
direct broadcast satellite (DBS), in which satellite video signals are transmitted
directly to the home user.
Satellite radio services such as Sirius XM and Worldspace allow mobile
subscribers to listen to the same audio programming anywhere they go; some
have continent-wide footprints. Other audio services, such as Music Choice or
Muzak’s satellite-delivered content, require a dish antenna and a fixed-location
receiver. In both fixed-location and mobile radio services, the antenna must have
a clear view to the satellites. In areas where tall buildings, bridges, or parking
garages obscure the signal, repeaters can be used to make the signal available
to listeners. Radio services are usually subscription-based that use proprietary
signals and require specialized receiving hardware for decoding and playback.
Providers such as Sirius XM enable subscribers to access a large range of news,
weather, sports, talk, comedy, and music channels with most music channels are
broadcast commercial-free.
Satellite transmission is also used for point-to-point trunks between telephone
exchange offices in public telephone networks. It is a useful medium for high-usage
international trunks and is competitive with terrestrial systems for many long-distance
international links, particularly in remote and undeveloped areas.
Finally, there are a number of business data applications for satellite. The
satellite provider can divide the total capacity into a number of channels and lease
these channels to individual business users. A user equipped with antennas at a
number of sites can use a satellite channel for a private network. Traditionally,
such applications have been quite expensive and limited to larger organizations
with high-volume requirements. Today, the very small aperture terminal (VSAT)
system provides a low-cost alternative.

44. Typical VSAT Configuration
Figure depicts a typical VSAT configuration.
A number of subscriber stations are equipped with low-cost VSAT
antennas. Using some discipline, these stations share a satellite transmission
capacity for transmission to a hub station. The hub station can exchange messages
with each of the subscribers and can relay messages between subscribers.

45. Summary Chapter 17: Wireless WANs Cellular wireless network
Third generation wireless communication
WAP
WML
WTAs
Microbrowser
Fourth generation wireless communication
4G network requirements
OFDMA
4G network evolution
Cellular wireless network
Cellular network organization
Operations of cellular systems
Multiple access
CDMA
Which access method to use
Satellite communications
Satellite orbits
Satellite network configurations
Applications
Chapter 17 summary.
Chapter 17: Wireless WANs