1. 1 CS/COE0447 Computer Organization & Assembly Language CHAPTER 1 Part 1

2. 2 Five Computer Components

3. 3 Embedded Computers Not directly observable Very widely used in many applications Examples:

4. 4 Today’s Topics Layered approach to computer design Machine code example Components of ISA Computer implementations –Inside a PC –IC technology and its trends –Input/output devices –Main memory –Secondary storage –Network IC process overview

5. 5 Transistors Layered Approach in Computer Design Computer Architecture or Instruction Set Architecture Logic gates Microarchitecture Architecture

6. 6 Machine Code Example swap: muli$2, $5, 4 add$2, $4, $2 lw$15, 0($2) lw$16, 4($2) sw$16, 0($2) sw$15, 4($2) jr$31 void swap(int v[], int k) { int temp; temp = v[k]; v[k] = v[k+1]; v[k+1] = temp; } 00000000101000010… 00000000000110000… 10001100011000100… 10001100111100100… 10101100111100100… 10101100011000100… 00000011111000000… compiler assembler

7. 7 Components of ISA In most cases, a “programmer’s reference manual” (PRM) will disclose the ISA of a processor To understand an ISA, find in PRM –Data types the processor supports –Supported instructions and their definitions –Registers (general-purpose & special purpose) –Processor modes –Exception mechanism

8. 8 Inside a PC Integrated Circuits (ICs) –CPU (Central Processing Unit), companion chipset, memory, peripheral I/O chip (e.g., USB, IDE, IEEE1394, …) Printed Circuit (PC) boards –Substrate for ICs and interconnection –Distribution of clock, power supply –Heat dissipation Hard disk, CD-RW (DVD-RW), (floppy disk) Power supply –Converts line AC voltage to regulated DC low voltage levels –GND, +/-12V, +/-5V, … Chassis –Holds boards, power supply, and provides physical interface for user and other systems Connectors and cables

9. 9 Integrated Circuits Primarily crystaline silicon 1mm~25mm on a side Feature size: 90nm ~ 130nm 100 ~ 1000M transistors 25 ~ 250M “logic gates” 3 ~ 10 metal “conductive” layers CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) technology Package spreads chip-level signal paths to board level Provides heat dissipation Ceramic or plastic with gold wires 8 ~ 1000 leads Various form-factors and shapes

10. 10 Printed Circuit (PC) Boards Fiberglass or ceramic 1 ~ 20 conductive layers 1 ~ 20 inch on a side IC packages are mounted and soldered on a board

11. 11 Technology Trend (Processor Complexity) 2x transistors/chip every 1.5 years!

12. 12 Memory Capacity Trend (DRAM) 1.4x/year or 2x every 2 years 8000x since 1980!

13. 13 Processor Performance Trend Intel P4 2000 MHz (Fall 2001) 1.54x/year

14. 14 Technology Advances Memory –DRAM capacity: 2x / 2 years (since ’96) –64x size improvement in last decade Processor –Speed (in terms of clock frequency): 2x / 1.5 years (since ’85) –100x performance improvement in last decade Disk –Capacity: 2x / 1 year (since ’97) –250x size improvement in last decade

15. 15 Your PC After Graduation Processor speed –6~8GHz Memory capacity –4GB~8GB Disk capacity –1000GB or 1TB New units: Mega to Giga, Giga to Tera, (Tera to Peta, Peta to Exa, Exa to Zetta, Zetta to Yotta) New, faster serial interfaces for various peripherals

16. 16 My First PC (@college) IBM PC AT –Based on 80286 (80586 is Pentium-1) Processor speed –20MHz (?) compared to 5,000MHz Memory capacity –1MB compared to 4000MB Disk capacity –40MB compared to 1000GB No CD-ROM! 14 inch monitor (not flat!), VGA (640x480) Wheel mouse –2 buttons

17. 17 Input Devices Accepts input from human (or from other machine) Desktop computers –Keyboard –Mouse (touchpad) –Joystick –… Servers –Terminals on network Cell phone – Embedded computers –Keypad

18. 18 Input Devices, cont’d Mouse –Wheel mouse (hard to find nowadays) –Optical mouse Takes 1,500 “photo shots” of LED reflection to detect any movement Keyboard or keypad –Not many changes so far Web camera Voice recognition –Partly successful New input device?

19. 19 Output Devices Passes information to human (or to other machine) Desktop computers –Display (CRT or LCD) –Sound –… Servers –Terminals on network Cell phone – Embedded computers –Screen –Sound –Vibration

20. 20 Output Devices, cont’d Display –CRT to LCD –LCD size from 10 inch to 24 inch Resolution from 640x480 to 1600x1200 Sound –Simple “tick” to theatre-like effects, 5.1 channel, etc.

21. 21 Main memory PC/servers use “DRAM” (Dynamic RAM) –SDRAM –DDR SDRAM –RDRAM (RAMBUS DRAM) A typical SDRAM “module”

22. 22 Main memory, cont’d Embedded computers use DRAM or SRAM (or both) depending on applications –On-chip SRAM (embedded SRAM) –On-chip SDRAM (embedded SDRAM) –SDRAM –Mobile SDRAM (1.8V operation) SRAM, SDRAM, FLASH all in a same chip!

23. 23 Storage Secondary storage (cf. main memory) Non-volatile Stores programs, user-saved data, etc. In PC/server domain, magnetic disk (hard- disk) is usually used In embedded computers, “flash” memory or “ROM” is usually employed

24. 24 Storage, cont’d 5.25-inch floppy disk 1.2MB 3.5-inch floppy disk 1.44MB USB Flash card 256MB

25. 25 Storage, cont’d

26. 26 Computer Networks Local Area Network (LAN) –Within limited distance (e.g., in a building) –Mostly based on Ethernet –10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps, … Wide Area Network –Connecting networks far apart At home, –Modem: 14.4Kbps, 28.8Kbps, 33.6Kbps, 56Kbps –Cable modem/DSL: several hundred Kbps ~ several Mbps –Higher-speed DSL technologies Proliferation of wireless LAN (IEEE802.11) –1 ~ 100Mbps

27. 27 (Simple) IC Process Overview Silicon ingot (silicon cylinder) (Blank) Wafers Various steps to build circuits on wafers –Photomask process –Chemical process –Mechanical process “Wafer test” to sort out bad parts Tested “die” “Packaging” steps –Wire bonding –Material filling –Marking “Chip test” to sort out bad parts Products

28. 28 Testing Your Chip Function –“The chip is working correctly” as intended Speed –“The chip is running at 4 GHz” as intended –“Speed binning” Power –“The chip consumes 50 Watt at 4 GHz” as intended Reliability –“The chip will be operational for 10 years” as written on manual and box

29. 29 Calculating Your Chip Cost Things to consider: –Mask cost: we need 20 ~ 40 masks used to form different patterns used in different process steps a.k.a. Non-Recurring Engineering (NRE) cost –Wafer cost –Cost put in process steps –Defect parts (we spend money producing defect parts!) –Any other overhead including marketing Can we calculate cost of each chip now? What happens if we adopt a new technology that can build smaller transistors?

30. 30 (Simple) IC Process Overview Silicon ingot (silicon cylinder) (Blank) Wafers Various steps to build circuits on wafers –Photomask process –Chemical process –Mechanical process “Wafer test” to sort out bad parts Tested “die” “Packaging” steps –Wire bonding –Material filling –Marking “Chip test” to sort out bad parts Products

31. 31 Testing Your Chip Function –“The chip is working correctly” as intended Speed –“The chip is running at 4 GHz” as intended –“Speed binning” Power –“The chip consumes 50 Watt at 4 GHz” as intended Reliability –“The chip will be operational for 10 years” as written on manual and box

32. 32 Calculating Your Chip Cost Things to consider: –Mask cost: we need 20 ~ 40 masks used to form different patterns used in different process steps a.k.a. Non-Recurring Engineering (NRE) cost –Wafer cost –Cost put in process steps –Defect parts (we spend money producing chips with defects!) –Any other overhead including marketing Can we calculate cost of each chip now? What happens if we adopt a new technology that can build smaller transistors?

33. 33 Packaging mounting wire bonding packaging material filling & marking

34. 34