1. Chapter 2 Volume 1 Establishing and Maintaining Orientation for Mobility

2. Spatial Orientation 4 fundamental aspects: Information gathering Use of strategies for following simple routes Use of cognitive maps Problem solving skills

3. Fundamental Concepts of Orientation Spatial Updating Frames of Reference

4. Spatial Updating The process of keeping track of the changing distances and directions to objects or places that result from self-movement

5. Frames of Reference Egocentric Frame of Reference (self to object) Information is perceived, remembered and acted on soley form the perspective of the individual’s CURRENT location Allocentric Frame of Reference (object to object) Information relates to locations of objects or places to one another INDEPENDENT of the location of the traveler

6. Types of Allocentric References Topocentric – information about the locations of landmarks or unique features Polarcentric – information which refers to the use of compass directions to describe the directions among places Cartographic – information which specifies the location of places in relation to a pattern, such as a grid pattern, building shape or systematic numbering or labeling.

7. Establishing and Maintaining Orientation Perception: Auditory, Tactile, “dead reckoning” Cognitive Strategies and Cognitive Maps Ability to recall and use information about routes and about the spatial arrangement of places Mental reprenseation of space characterized byman “distortions, holes and exaggerations of the real world

8. Age of On-set Has little or NO effect on spatial tasks that are fundamentally egocentric in nature The difference in allocentric mapping occurs between early on-set and late on-set of vision loss Neurological organization Not yet learned strategies needed to perform higher-order spatial tasks Individuals blind from birth tend to base spatial knowledge on proimas information

9. Spatial Aspects of Route Travel Landmarks – permanent locations in the environment Secondary Landmarks (possible to miss because of location Information points (clues) Problem solving Re-establishing orientation

10. Steps to Re-establishing Orientation Idnetify that a problem exists (awareness!) Identifying alternative strategies for solving problems Evaluate available information Using general knowledge of environment (Unfamiliar route) best guess, cartographic knowledge Selecting a strategy from available alternatives Evaluating the effectiveness of the selected strategy

11. New Environments MUST BE SYSTEMATIC! The ability of students to explore in ways that aid them in remembering the features in a place and their spatial relationships; AND the implementation of orientation- related strategies while traveling are two important skills! (room familiarization: peripheral, grid, landmarks on walls, etc)

12. Strategies for Learning New Environments Solict information about landmarks Tactile Maps Ability to use Egocentric and Allocentric Mapping Whole to Part Perimeter, gridline and reference point* *Note: people initially used perimeter and gridline strategies, but with additonal exploration tended to adopt a reference-point strategy to gain knowledge aobut object to object.

13. Research and Practice In Spatial Orientation Maps and map instruction are NOT as widespread as they should be. Accessible maps are not readily available. Creative use of compasses, global satellite-based positioning systems and other technology will help with limitations due to higher-order spactial orientation abilities. For Example: GPS aids in despcription of intersection geometry and has potential to improve mobility in new places.

14. Teaching Strategies Encourage students to point to places they cannot directly perceive Describe spatial relationships using varous types of spatial language Construct maps and models Examine route learning behavior in light of features available Take into consideration traveler’s overall travel experience, visual status, familiarity with environment and ability to make higher-order spatial inferences