1. IINO, Atsushi Hosei University, Tokyo Japan iino@hosei.ac.jp
Squaring the Circle 1st ELT Conference Izmir Economics University March 26, 2011
The Relationship between Shadowing and Dictation with Reference to Listening
IINO, Atsushi
Hosei University, Tokyo Japan
IINO

2. 1. Introduction ELT situation in Japan
Instructional tradition focusing on written modes: reading and writing since 19c. Grammar translation method is still popular.
Why?
Less chance to use oral English in daily life
Strong focus on preparing for entrance exams to high schools/ universities (DNC)
Needs
More Instructions focusing on oral aspect of English (listening and speaking) is needed
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3. To improve listening Top-down processing tasks
Listening comprehension exercises
Q&A(T/F, MCQ), Note taking, Retelling, Summary making, Task-based exchange
Bottom-up processing tasks
Decoding / reproduction exercises
Repetitive listening, Dictation, Shadowing
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4. Definition: Dictation, Shadowing
Dictation: written reproduction of acoustically presented messages. Originally a task for testing listening, but as an effective activity to improve listening
Shadowing: verbatim repetition of acoustically presented messages. Or
“Shadowing is an act or a task of listening in which the learners tracks the heard speech and repeats it as exactly as possible while listening attentively to the in-coming information.” (Tamai ,2002:179)
Instructional dilemma: Time 　　
‘Shadowing’ is an activity which has invited the attention of foreign language teachers as a way to improve target language proficiency (Kondo, 1992; Someya,1996; Tamai, 2002; Tanaka, 2002, Kadota, 2002; Torikai et al, 2003; Tamai & Kadota, 2004).
Tamai (2002) described shadowing for language learning as follows.
Shadowing is an act or a task of listening in which the learners tracks the heard speech and repeats it as exactly as possible while listening attentively to the in-coming information (p.179)
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5. Effects of Shadowing
Improving listening ability (Nishimura, 1999; Tamai,2002; Iino,2004; Onaha,2007)
Raising the prosodic sense, which is regarded as one of the important sub-skills necessary to acquire a language. (Mori 2010; Someya,1996)
Improving overall proficiency
For EFL especially, it is a way to improve target language proficiency (Kadota, 2002; Kondo, 1992; Tamai, 2002; Tanaka, 2002, Tamai & Kadota, 2004; Torikai et al, 2003; Someya,1996).
Shadowing is one of the methods used to train simultaneous interpreters, however, some of the trainers have argued about the effect of the activity. Kondo (1992) introduced the controversy in Europe over shadowing among the trainers, in which the effect of shadowing was criticized because it was a mere ‘parrot style’ reproduction of sound without interpretation. Partially justifying the criticism from the viewpoint of the interpreters, Someya (1996), himself as an interpreter trainer, recognized the significant role of shadowing in order to improve general foreign language proficiency. He particularly pointed out its effect on raising the prosodic sense, which is regarded as one of the important sub-skills necessary to acquire a language. By the same token, it has been proven by other researchers that shadowing practice improves listening ability (Nishimura, 1999; Tamai,2002).
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6. 2.Previous research comparing Dictation & Shadowing: Tamai（1992）
Participants: two groups of Japanese high school students;
Treatment: Instruction of shadowing for 3 months vs. dictation for 3 months
Result: Shadowing > Dictation
Shadowing could play the role of sub-skill of listening, activating subvocal rehearsal in the phonological loop in working memory
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7. Distribution of attention in working memory
Central Executive
Visuo-Spatial
Sketch Pad
Episode
Buffer
Phonological
Loop
Long-term Memory
Visual meaning 　⇔ Episode ⇔ Language
Working Memory Model (Baddeley, 2000)
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8. Previous research(2): Tamai（2005）
RQ: Effects of shadowing / dictation on listening depending on English proficiency level N=93　（university freshmen)
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9. Research Questions
Do shadowing and dictation show same or different relationship according to proficiency level of the learners?
How strong are the relationship between shadowing and listening and that between dictation and listening depending on proficiency level? (correlational studies)
(3) Are shadowing and dictation interchangeable?
What is the contribution of shadowing scores to overall proficiency?
(multiple regression analyses)
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10. 3. Participants
Japanese college level (junior) EFL learners
70 non-English majored students
Proficiency Index
(/1000pts）
Group A　N=33
Group B　
N=37
CASEC Ave
( SD)
558.97
（61.4）
521.08
(66.9)
TOEIC conv’td ave.
(SD)
507.88
（75.8）
　 (79.6)
Group A > B (p <.01)
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11. What is CASEC test? CAT (Computer Adaptive Test) 45min. (average)
Converted score for TOEIC available
Four sections with 15 problems, 250 pts each
Section1 Vocabulary
Section2 Reading and Expression
Section 3 Listening comprehension
Section 4 Dictation
For more details, see
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12. 4. Method
Listening scores
Used Section 3 in CASEC test
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13. Dictation scores
Used Section 3 in CASEC
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14. Shadowing scores Shadowing test done to individual students
Cf. Sample of marking procedure of shadowing
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15. 5．Results &discussion Descriptive statistics
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16. Correlation coefficients
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17. RQ1 : Do shadowing and dictation show same or different relationship according to proficiency level of the learners?
Result
① Moderately strong positive correlation coefficients were observed both in the high proficient learners (Gr. A, r =.503) and the lower proficient learners (Gr. B, r =.598)
 shadowing and dictation show the similar relationship regardless of proficiency level
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18. ②Shadowing & Listening A: weak (r=.149); B: moderately strong (r=.508)
RQ 2: How strong are the relationship between shadowing and listening and that between dictation and listening depending on proficiency level? (correlational studies)
Results:
②Shadowing & Listening　　　
　A: weak (r=.149); B: moderately strong (r=.508)
③Dictation &Listening　
A: weak (r=.153); B: moderately strong (r=.487)
Low proficiency learners showed stronger relationships both in dictation and shadowing than High proficient learners.
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19. (3) Are shadowing and dictation interchangeable?
Results
④Proficiency & Dictation　　
　 A&B: fairly strong (r = .698; r =.695)
⑤Proficiency &Shadowing　　
　 A: moderately weak (r = .320) ; B: fairly strong (r = .621)
For lower proficient learners shadowing can be replaced to dictation. But not for high proficient learners.
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20. CASEC=Dictation+Dict+Listen+Exp+Vocab
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21. Multiple regression analyses (stepwise way: Lower Gr. sample)
RQ:Can shadowing be alternated to dictation in predicting English proficiency of the learners
CASEC=Shadow+Dict+Listen+Exp+Vocab
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22. Implication to the classroom
Shadowing and dictation show the similar relationship regardless of proficiency level
As a classroom activity we can interchangeably use them depending on the time available. E.g. Shadowing during the class, dictation as an assignment.
Low proficiency learners showed stronger relationships both in dictation and shadowing than High proficient learners.
 Following the previous research, both shadowing and dictation will be adopted as a part of instruction especially for lower level learners.
For lower proficient learners shadowing can better be replaced to dictation.
Need to improve automaticity of decoding both in written and oral modes. Sound based reproduction could be more effective for low proficient learners..
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23. Conclusion: Significance of Shadowing
For EFL learners who learn English in non- English speaking countries …
Knowledge of vocabulary, syntax, sounds, pragmatics (Lots of input needed) ↓
Improve automaticity in processing
(Lots of output practice needed)
Practical Use
(Lots of interaction needed)
shadowing
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24. For further research Scoring procedure in shadowing
Validity and reliability to be reaffirmed
 Collect more data and make reliable evaluation method to be sought
Further investigation needed including the components constructing sound rehearsal activity
 Working memory components measure
Further investigation to find the relationship with creative oral activities
 Automaticity raising practices + Creative production of L2enhancing L2 performance
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25. Thank you
Slides of this presentation are available HP:
Contact
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26. References
Tamai, Ken (1992) ｢`follow-up'の聴解力向上に及 ぼす効果およぴ"follow-up"能力と聴解カの関係｣ 「 STEP BULLETIN」 5:48-61
(Effects of “follow-up” on listening comrehesion and relationship between the abitly of “follow-up” and listening ability)
Tamai, Ken （2005) 「リスニング指導法としてのシ ャドーイングの効果に関する研究」東京：風間書房 (Study on effects of shadowing as a way of listening instruction)
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27. Tamai（2005） Study ２ ＋ － Dicta- tion Shadow Control Listeining（SLEP）
Reading (SLEP）
Speed of reading aloud L1 Nouns
Speed of reading aloud L2 Nous
Digit span in L1（4-10 dgts）
L2 Digit span
Repeating unfamiliar words （multi-syllable words)
下位構成素として単語の音読速度、数字の記憶スパン、未知語の反復能力として探 索的にデータを採取し、比較した結果、読解力がディクテーションにおいて有意にの びたこと以外、大きな差は見られないことが分かった。
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28. Listening Repeating
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