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Motivation (definition)
‘… those psychological processes that cause the arousal, the direction, and the persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed.”
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Motivation Theories Need Theories Herzberg Two-Factor Theory
Cognitive Process Theories Behavioral Theory Job Characteristics Model
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Need (or Content) Theories
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Alderfer’s ERG Theory McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory
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Maslow’s theory A Deprivation Theory An Orderly Hierarchy No Retreat
Made in America
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Alderfer’s ERG Theory Existence Relatedness Growth Deprivation Theory
Person can descend hierarchy Satisfaction-Progression Frustration-Regression
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Satisfiers Dissatisfiers
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McClelland’s Theory Achievement Power Affiliation Individually Unique
socialized personalized Affiliation Individually Unique A Profile of Needs Socially Acquired
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Content Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Alderfer’s ERG Theory Herzberg’s Theory McClelland’s Learned Needs Self- Actualization Growth Motivators Need for Achievement Esteem Need for Power Belongingness Relatedness Hygienes Need for Affiliation Safety Existence Physiological
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Process theories Equity Theory Expectancy Theory Goal Setting
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Expectancy Theory of Motivation
E-to-P Expectancy P-to-O Expectancy Outcomes & Valences Outcome 1 + or - Effort Performance Outcome 2 + or - Outcome 3 + or -
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Expectancy Theory Expectancy Terms Probability Expectancy
Instrumentality Valence Effort to Performance Performance to Outcome
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Expectancy Issues Multiple outcomes are likely
Perception of outcome values determine choice It is a multiplicative model (zero is significant) Blockages possible from individual and organization
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Expectancy Theory in Practice
Increasing the E-to-P expectancy training, selection, resources, clarify roles, provide coaching and feedback Increasing the P-to-O expectancy Measure performance accurately, explain how rewards are based on past performance Increasing outcome valences Use valued rewards, individualize rewards, minimize countervalent outcomes
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Equity theory I/O = I/O
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Equity theory: An exchange theory
Equity Terms: Individual Referent Other (comparison) Ratio Inputs Outcomes
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Responses to Inequity Change Inputs Change Outcomes
Cognitively Distort own I/O Withdraw Acting on Other Change Referent (comparison) Other
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Effective Goal Setting
Specific Results-oriented Task Effort Performance Challenging Commitment Participation
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Effect of Goal Difficulty on Performance
High Area of Optimal Goal Difficulty Task Performance Low Moderate Challenging Impossible Goal Difficulty
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Rewards – are typically based on:
Membership & Seniority Job Status Internal & External equity Competency Skill-based pay Task Performance
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Performance-Based Rewards
Individual: - piece rate - commissions - merit pay - bonuses: Team - gainsharing - bonuses Organizational - profit sharing - ESOP (employee owned)
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The Trouble with Rewards
Rewards Punish Rewards rupture relationships Rewards ignore reasons Rewards discourage risk-taking Rewards undermine intrinsic motivation
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Therefore…. Measure Performance Carefully
Ensure that Rewards are Relevant Use Team Rewards Ensure that rewards are valued Watch for unintended consequences
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Job Characteristics Model
Core Job Characteristics Critical Psychological States Outcomes Skill variety Task identity Task significance Meaningfulness Work motivation Growth satisfaction General effectiveness Autonomy Responsibility Feedback from job Knowledge of results Individual differences
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Examples of Job Re-Design
Job Rotation Job Enlargement Job Enrichment
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Reasons for Job Rotation
Increases motivation through skill variety Fewer repetitive strain injuries Creates multi-skilled work force
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Job Enrichment Strategies
Empowering employees giving employees more autonomy feeling of control and self-efficacy Forming natural work units completing an entire task assigning employees to specific clients Establishing client relationships employees put in direct contact with clients
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Obstacles to Job Design
Difficult to accurately measure job characteristics More team than individual job design Resistance to change Problem finding optimal level of enrichment and specialization
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Elements of Self-Leadership
Reinforcement Self- Monitoring Designing Natural Rewards Constructive Thought Patterns Personal Goal Setting
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Albert Ellis’s Fallacies – bad self-talk
Fallacy of Perfection Fallacy of Approval Fallacy of Should Fallacy of Overgeneralization Fallacy of Causation Fallacy of Helplessness Fallacy of Catastrophic Expectations
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