1. Astronomical Detectors

2. The First Detector in Astronomy
Retina
Light sensitive, chemical process
Rods
100 million
2mm wide
can detect low light levels
averted vision
Cones
color information
7 million
cluster near axis
1000 per square mm
Reusable
integration times 100 ms
Eye: complete system of telescope (variable aperture, ~1cm max), detector, and data reduction processor
Quantum efficiency ~1%
Resolution 80 arcsecs

3. Discoveries made with the Eye
Naked Eyes
Nomenclature: Constellations, star names
Astrometry: Stellar positions
Magnitude scale
Planets in solar system, planet orbits (Tycho, Kepler)
Comets
Supernovae explosions, variable stars
Sunspots (by Chinese 800 B.C.)
Solar corona (eclipse)
Lunar Phases
Star Clusters (e.g. Pleiades)

4. Discoveries made with the Eye
With telescopes
Sunspot cycle
Saturn‘s rings, Jupiter‘s Red Spot
Nebulae, Spiral Nebulae
Parallax, astrometric measurements
Asteroids, moons of most planets
Craters on Moon

5. Observations with the eye can be unreliable
No record of observations so as to check results
Precise measurements cannot be made (position, magnitude, etc) because observations are not recorded or digitized
Integration time of eye is short so faint objects cannot be seen without using larger and larger telescopes
Example of unreliability of eye: Canals on Mars

6. Eta Carinae Images over the past 100 years
Ground-based CTIO 4m
Hubble Space Telescope

7. A Revolution in Detectors: Photographic Plates
1840 J.W. Draper makes a photograph of the moon. Followed by photographs of the Sun by Foucault and Fizeau
Sunspots photographed in 1858 by W. De La Rue
Jansen and Lockyer in the 1870s photographed the solar spectrum and discovered the spectral lines of Helium.
Ainsee Common photographed Orion Nebula and these revealed stars and details you could not see in a telescope
Photographs by Hubble in the early 1900‘s established that some nebula where „island universes“ (i.e. galaxies). His spectral observations of galaxies (exposures of more than one night) led to the discovery of the expansion of the Universe.
For 100 years photographic plates/film dominated the field of astronomical detectors.

8. Single Channel Detectors: Photomultiplier Tubes
Photomultiplers are photon counting devices that consist of vacuum tube with a photocathode and focusing electrodes for amplification.
Photocathode: light striking the photocathode produces an electron through the photoelectric effect
Focusing electrodes focus the electron toward electron multiplier or dynode. Each dynode is held at a more positive voltage as the previous one
Electrons are accelerated as they approach the first dynode arriving with greater energy.
More low energy electrons are released and acclerated by the second dynode.
A cascade amplifies the number of electrons (1 photon can produce up to 108 electrons)
At anode an electric current is produced

9. In 1907 Joel Stebbins pioneered the use of photoelectric devices in Astronomy

10. Spectral response of some commonly used photocathode materials

11. Photomultiplier tubes: pile up errors
Each detected photon produces a pulse of finite duration, t0, which causes a dead time in the detector. The number of pulses (exposure time) is reduced by the amount of overlapping deadtimes.
N = n/(1–t0n)
N is the true rate, and n the apparent rate
Pile-up errors
System blocks completely at high light levels

12. Disadvantages of Photomultiplier tubes:
Must be operated at high voltages
High light levels can destroy the tube
Not very efficient in optical regions: 3500 to Ang.
Single channel devices (more on this later)

13. Multi-Channel Detectors (Arrays): Photographic Plates
Photographic plates were the first two-dimensional detectors
Advantages of photographic plates:
Wide field of view. TLS Schmidt plates are 3 deg x 3 deg.
Resolution, more so than a CCD of the same area

14. So why do we not still use plates?
Disadvantages of photographic plates:
Low quantum efficiency. The best plates have a QE of about 3%
Long exposure times, inefficient use of time
Reciprocity failure. It becomes less effective as exposure time increases
Non-linear color sensitivity. Plates are more sensitive to blue light
Hypersensitising and Developing. Hypersensitising involves baking plates to increase efficiency (up to 10%). You cannot see results until after developing usually many hours later.
Storage. They are fragile and take up space. They also decay with age.
Digitisation. Must be scanned to put the data in digital form
Cost and availability. In 1996 a single 30 cm x 30 cm plate costs $100 USD. Kodak no longer makes plates.

15. Reciprocity Failure of Photograhic Plates
Cross section of a photographic plate

16. CCD: The Digital Revolution
Nomenclature:
CCD = Charge Coupled Device
A photon detecting device that exploits the photoelectric effect and the semiconducting properties of silicon
The voltage generated is coupled to the intensity of the incident light
Pixel = picture element. Each pixel is an independent photon detector
DN = Data Number (ADU = Analog to Digital Unit)
The output signal from a CCD. Value and range depend on the nature of the voltage digitization. E.g. an 8-bit CCD produces DNs from 0 to 28 (0 to 255). Most CCDs are 16 bit (maximum = 65535) or higher

17. CCD Properties and Definitions

18. lmax = 12400 Å/Eg Material Eg (eV) lmax (Å) Pure Si 1.1 11300 GaAs
1.43
8670
InSb
0.36
34400

19. n-type: a material with more than 4 valence electrons is added (As, from group Va). The extra electrons cannot be accommodated in the valence band and so occupy the conduction band. They represent a persistent set of negative carriers
p-type: a material with fewer than 4 valence electrons is added (e.g. B, from group IIIa). This has one fewer electron than normal and creates a small "vacuum" in the electron sea of the valence band. This is called a "hole." As valence electrons shift to fill it, the hole propagates like a positive charge in the opposite direction. The holes represent a persistent set of positive carriers.
From

20. In the depletion region a photon produces an electron
In the depletion region a photon produces an electron. This migrates into the conduction band

21. The Basic Unit of a CCD
The basic element of a CCD consists of a Metal Oxide Semiconductor. The bulk material is p-silicon on which an insulating layer of silicon oxide has been grown as well as thin conducting electrodes of transparent polysilicon. The central electrode is set to a positive bias while the two flanking electrodes are negative. This creates a "depletion" region under the central electrode containing no holes but a deep potential well to trap electrons. The region shown is about 10µ thick. During exposure light enters through the "front-side" electrodes. Photoelectrons generated under the central electrode will be attracted toward the electrode and held below it. The corresponding holes will be swept away into the bulk silicon.
From

22. A „3-phase CCD“
Reading out a CCD
Parallel registers shift the charge along columns
There is one serial register at the end which reads the charge along the final row and records it to a computer
For last row, shift is done along the row
Columns

23. The process continues until the CCD is fully read out.
Figure from O‘Connell‘s lecture notes on detectors
The CCD is first clocked along the parallel register to shift the charge down a column
The CCD is then clocked along a serial register to readout the last row of the CCD
The process continues until the CCD is fully read out.

25. How much charge is lost in the this charge transfer process?
Typical Charge Transfer Efficiency of a CCD is > %
Suppose you have a 4096 x 4096 CCD and detect photons (electrons). Signal to Noise ratio = √N = 200
Charge recorded = x =
1605 electrons „lost“
S/N decreased to 195

26. Typical CCD readout times are 90 – 240 secs, depending on the size of the CCD. This is for single amplifier CCDs. To reduce the readout time some devices can have 4 channels (amplifiers) for readout:
Serial register with one amplfier
4 Serial registers with 4 amplfiers
4 Channel CCD
Normal readout
4 channel CCD cuts readout time by a factor of 4. Problem: each quadrant usually behaves differently, with its own bias, flat field response, etc. In the data reduction 4 channel CCDs have to be reduced as if they were 4 independent frames.

27. Quantum Efficiency of some science grade CCDs from ESO:
The real power of CCDs is their high quantum efficiency

28. Quantum Efficiency of CCDs compared to other devices

29. Two basic types of CCDs:
Front illuminated CCD: A CCD whose gate structure is located in front of the potential wells. In other words the light has to pass through the gates
Back illuminated CCD: A CCD whose thickness is reduced to 10 mm so that it can be focused on the front where there are no gates. A back illuminated CCD is just a front illuminated CCD flipped and thinned. It is more efficient, particularly in the blue.
Risk: There is a risk that in the thinning process the CCD will be destroyed

30. Thick Front-illuminated CCD
Thin Back-illuminated CCD

31. Front side (thick) versus Back side (thin) CCDs
For wavelengths shorter than Å electrons are generated close to the surface. Thus backside CCDs have a much higher potential for ultraviolet sensitivity than front side thick devices

32. Front side (thick) versus Back side (thin) CCDs
Thin CCDs have a much higher quantum efficiency, particularly in the blue. Most CCDs in use are thinned as the thinning process is fairly reliable and it is rare when a CCDs is destroyed in the thinning process.

33. CCD Parameters Important for Observations
Gain: Converts ADU to number of photons detected. Important for Signal-to-Noise estimate. Typically 0.5–10 e–1/ADU
Linearity: Detected counts should be proportional to the exposure time. If a CCD has a non-linear regime these level of counts should be avoided
Readout Noise: Noise introduced by CCD readout electronics. negligible for High Signal-to Noise observations
Dark: Thermal noise. Neglible for High Signal-to-Noise Observations Most science grades CCDs are kept at –120 C or cooler.
Bias level: Constant level added to the data by the electronics to ensure that there are no negative numbers
McDonald CCD for coude spectrograph:
Gain = 0.56 ± e–1/ADU
Readout Noise = 3.06 electrons
Bias level = 1024

34. Noise Tests for CCD: Linearity
Take a series of frames of a low intensity lamp and plot the mean counts as a function of exposure time
1.5 x 105
Mean Intensity
If the curve followed the red line at the high count rate end (and some CCDs do!) then you would know to keep your exposure to under

35. Noise Tests for CCD: Gain
For Photon statistics the variance, s = √Photons. Therefore s2 should be a measure of the number of detected photons
Take a series of frames at with a constant light level
Compute s for frames
Change the exposure time and take another series of frames calculating a new s
Plot the observed mean intensity versus the variance squared (s2)
The slope is a measure of the gain

36. 1.5 x 105
Mean Intensity

37. Problems and Pitfalls of CCD Usage
Saturation
If too many electrons are produced (too high intensity level) then the full well of the CCD is reached and the maximum count level will be obtained. Additional detected photons will not increase the measured intensity level:
65535
16-bit AD converter
ADU
Exposure time

38. Problems and Pitfalls of CCDs
Blooming:
If the full well is exceeded then charge starts to spill over in the readout direction, i.e. columns. This can destroy data far away from the saturated pixels.

39. Blooming columns
Saturated stars

40. Anti-blooming CCD can eliminate this effect:
No blooming
Blooming

41. One solution: Anti-blooming CCDs
Anti-blooming CCDs have additional gates to bleed off the overflow due to saturation
The problem is these gates cover 30% of the pixel. This results in reduced sensitivity, smaller well depth, and lower resolution (gaps between pixels has increased)

42. Residual Images
If the intensity is too high this will leave a residual image. Left is a normal CCD image. Right is a bias frame showing residual charge in the CCD. This can effect photometry
Solution: several dark frames readout or shift image between successive exposures

43. Fringing
CCDs especially back illuminated ones are bonded to a glass plate
SiO2
10 mm
Glue 1 mm
Glass
When the glass is illuminated by monochromatic light it creates a fringe pattern. Fringing can also occur without a glass plate due to the thickness of the CCD

44. l (Å)
6600
6760
6920
7080
7280
7460
7650
7850
8100
8400
Depending on the CCD fringing becomes important for wavelengths greater than about 6500 Å

45. Readout Noise Signal-to-Noise Ratio Intensity
Readout noise in electrons 1 3 10
Intensity
High readout noise CCDs (older ones) could seriously affect your Signal-to-Noise ratios of observations

46. Basic CCD reductions
Subtract the Bias level. The bias level is an artificial constant added in the electronics to ensure that there are no negative pixels
Divide by a Flat lamp to ensure that there are no pixel to pixel variations
Optional: Removal of cosmic rays. These are high energy particles from space that create „hot pixels“ on your detector. Also can be caused by natural radiactive decay on the earth.

47. Bias
Overscan region
Pixel
Most CCDs have an overscan region, a portion of the chip that is not exposed so as to record the bias level. The prefered way is to record a separate bias (a dark with 0 sec exposure) frame and fit a surface to this. This is then subtracted from every frame as the first step in the reduction. If the bias changes with time then it is better to use the overscan region

48. Flat Field Division
Raw Frame
Flat Field
Raw divided by Flat
Every CCD has different pixel-to-pixel sensitivity, defects, dust particles, etc that not only make the image look bad, but if the sensitivity of pixels change with time can influence your results. Every observation must be divided by a flat field after bias subtraction. The flat field is an observation of a white lamp. For imaging one must take either sky flats, or dome flats (an illuminated white screen or dome observed with the telescope). For spectral observations „internal“ lamps (i.e. ones that illuminate the spectrograph, but not observed through the telescope are taken. Often even for spectroscopy „dome flats“ produce better results, particularly if you want to minimize fringing.

49. CCD versus Photographic Plate
1/9 coverage
Cost: Euros, ~ Euros for same FOV
Cost per exposure over lifetime: < 1 Euro
Plate
3 x 3 deg (less since image is trimmed) in one exposure
Cost 100 Euros
Requires 20 m telescope to detect same number of photons as CCD

50. CCD versus CMOS
CCD

51. CCD versus CMOS
CMOS (digital cameras)

52. In CMOS detectors the photon is converted to a voltage at the pixel level.
Each pixel can be read independently at any time.
No destruction of the charge and pixels can be read repeatedly to reduce the readout noise
CMOS detectors have use in infrared arrays. Less experience with materials in the IR means that one cannot use a charge transfer method to readout.
No problems with blooming in CMOS CCDs. Just read out the charge before it saturates. Can thus have a very large dynamic range.

53. Ultraviolet Detectors
Multi-anode Microchannel Plate Array (MAMA) Detectors
MAMA detectors are essential photomultipliers. They operate a smaller voltages and are small so that they can be put into a two dimensional array. MAMAs are photon counting devices and each photon has a time tag.

54. Quantum Efficiency of the Hubble Space Telescope STIS instrument

55. And yes there is a PAPA detector…
Precision Analog Photon Address (PAPA) Detectors
Also for use in the UV.
See Papalios & Mertz, 1982, SPIE, Instrumentation in Astronomy IV, 331, p360

56. Ultraviolet Detectors
Another method uses a CCD as a hybrid. The photocathode is used to produce an electron from the UV photon. These are accelerated to produce a large number that strike a phosphor that generates optical photons. Thse are coupled to a CCD with fibre optics

57. X-ray CCD Detectors
CCDs can also be used for X-ray observations with some differences to optical CCDs:
Optical CCDs produce one electron per photon. Many photons have to be detected before a measurable signal can be produced. A single X-ray photon can produce electrons (1 electron per 3.6 eV of energy). With low amplifier noise this can be measured. Thus X-ray CCDs are photon counting devices
Requires one photon incident per pixel which means integration times of ~secs for most astronomical sources
Lower CTE with losses of about 1%

58. The detector of the future: a photon counter that measures each photon, its time of arrival, and its energy. This will be a detector and spectrograph in one.