1. Chapter 4: Gender Development, Gender Roles, and Gender Identity

2. Chapter 4 Outline Prenatal Development: X and Y Make the Difference
Sexual Differentiation in the Womb
Atypical Sexual Differentiation: Not Always Just X and Y
Gender Roles and Gender Traits
Girls Act Like Girls, Boys Act Like Boys
Are Gender Roles Innate?
Studying Gender

3. Chapter 4 Outline (Cont.)
Gender Role Theory
Evolutionary Theory: Adapting to Our Environment
Social Learning Theory: Learning from Our Environment
Cognitive Development Theory: Age-State Learning
Gender Schema Theory: Our Cultural Maps

4. Chapter 4 Outline (Cont.)
Varieties of Gender
Masculinity: The Hunter
Femininity: The Nurturer
Androgyny: Feminine and Masculine
Transgenderism: Living as the Other Sex
Transsexualism: When Gender and Biology Don’t Agree
Third Genders: Other Cultures, Other Options
Asexualism: The Genetics but Not the Sex

5. Chapter 4 Outline (Cont.)
Gender Role Socialization from Infancy through Old Age
Childhood: Learning by Playing
Adolescence: Practice Being Female or Male
Adulthood: Careers and Families
The Senior Years
Different but Not Less Than

6. Gender and Sex
Gender – refers to behavioral, psychological, and social characteristics of men and women
Sex – refers to the biological aspects of being male or female
Both nature and nurture are important in forming gender
Case study: Dr. John Money and Brenda/Bruce

7. Prenatal Development: X and Y Make the Difference
Humans reproduce sexually and are made to be sexual beings
Each parent supplies a gamete, each with half of the genetic information (23 chromosomes), including a sex chromosome
Male: sperm (X or Y)
Female: egg/ovum (X)

8. Prenatal Development: X and Y Make the Difference (Cont.)
Fertilization
Haploid egg + Haploid sperm = Diploid zygote
Sex is determined at conception
Development of female or male sexual characteristics, usually
Some developmental variations

9. Sexual Differentiation in the Womb
Gestation: 9 months
4-6 weeks: gonads begin to develop and sexual differentiation starts 1-2 weeks later
Sex chromosomes control development of:
internal sex organs
external sex organs
the embryo’s hormonal environment
the brain’s sexual differentiation

10. Internal Sex Organs 5th – 6th week: primitive gonads form
7th – 8th week: gonads become testes with Y chromosome and the SRY gene
10th-11th week: gonads become ovaries with absence of Y chromosome and SRY gene, and possibly the presence of ovarian hormones
“Default setting” is female

11. Internal Sex Organs (Cont.)
10th-11th week: primitive duct systems appear
Müllerian duct (female)
Wolffian duct (male)
Their further development is hormonally controlled by the gonads

12. Internal Sex Organs (Cont.)
Female embryos:
Lack male hormones and Wolffian duct degenerates
Müllerian duct forms: uterus, inner third of vagina
Male embryos:
Müllerian inhibiting factor regresses the Müllerian duct
Testosterone stimulates the Wolffian duct

13. Figure 4.1 Development of the male and female internal reproductive systems from the undifferentiated stage. We discuss these specific structures more in Chapters 5 and 6.

14. External Sex Organs
Homologous organs: developed from the same prenatal tissue
8th week: tubercle differentiates
Female: female hormones from mother and placenta promote development into female external genitalia
Male: androgen secreted by the testes stimulate development into male external genitalia

16. Figure 4.2 Development of the male and female external genitalia from the undifferentiated genital tubercle.

17. Hormonal Development and Influences
Ovaries produce:
Estrogen: female sexual characteristics
Progesterone: menstrual cycle and pregnancy
Testes produce:
Androgens: development of male-typical characteristics

19. Brain Differentiation
Hormones affect the development of the brain
The brain regulates secretion of hormones

20. Atypical Sexual Differentiation: Not Always Just X and Y
Atypical sexual differentiation can occur with irregularities in:
Sex chromosomes
Sex hormones
Maternal hormone exposure

21. Sex Chromosome Disorders
Over 70 sex chromosome abnormalities
Extra or missing sex chromosomes
3 most common:
Klinefelter’s syndrome
Turner’s syndrome
XYY/XXX

22. Klinefelter’s Syndrome
XXY – egg contained an extra X
1/700 live male births
Develops male genitalia, but not fully
Tall, feminized body
Low testosterone levels; low in sexual desires
Gynecomastia
Infertile
Testosterone therapy

23. Turner’s Syndrome XO – egg has no sex chromosome
1/2500 live female births
Ovaries aren’t fully developed
Amenorrhea
Infertile
Short stature
Immature breast development
Mental retardation
Estrogen and progesterone therapy

24. XYY Syndrome / Triple X Syndrome
XYY or XXX – sperm contains an extra sex chromosome, or egg has an extra X
May be normal male (XYY) or normal female (XXX)
May have slight mental retardation and/or fertility problems

25. Hormonal Irregularities
Hermaphrodite – born with fully developed testes and ovaries; extremely rare
Pseudohermaphrodite – external genitals appear on some level similar to both sexes
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS)

26. Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
XX exposed to a lot of androgen prenatally during sexual differentiation
1/10,000 to 18,000 girls
Adrenal glands in the embryo may produce too much androgen, or the mother takes male hormones or a male hormone agonist
Internally and genetically a female
Corrective surgery, drugs

27. Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome
XY – the body doesn’t respond to testosterone that is produced by the testes
1/20,000 boys
No internal reproductive structure except 2 undescended testes
Shallow “vagina”
Breasts develop
Do not menstruate; infertile
No surgery recommended without consent

29. Gender Roles and Gender Traits
Gender stereotypes greatly influence our thoughts and interactions
Gender roles – culturally defined behaviors, attitudes, emotions, traits, mannerisms, appearances, and occupations that are appropriate for females and males
Gender traits – biologically determined differences between males and females

30. Masculinity and Femininity
Ideal cluster of traits that society attributes to each gender
Changes with society, and varies from culture to culture
Less gender role stereotyping in African Americans and Northern U.S.

31. Are Gender Roles Innate?
Behaviors are complex and typically interactions of nature and nurture
Cultures can vary widely in their definition of male and female, and transcend seeming traits
Tchambuli
Biological differences: body size, strength, muscle to fat ratio, maturation, brain form and function, “heartiness”

32. Are Gender Roles Innate? (Cont.)
Maternal instinct and surrogate mothering
Play behavior in 3- to 6-year olds
Gender differences are easier to publish, but research has begun to look at gender similarities

33. Gender Role Theory A variety of theorists and positions
Evolutionary biology: gender differences are due to adapting to our environment
Social learning: learn gender roles from society, our environment
Cognitive development: universal stages for understanding and utilizing gender

34. Gender Role Theory (Cont.)
Gender schema: cognitive structures organize “gender,” influenced by culture
Gender hierarchy: men are the standard and their traits are valued more by society
Chodorow’s developmental: psychoanalytic background; boys separate from mom by devaluing females; girls can love mom as a heterosexual and idealize father’s qualities

35. Gender Role Theory (Cont.)
Ortner’s culture/nature: masculinity is associated with culture, femininity with nature; culture encompasses nature
MacKinnon’s dominance: men use gender to dominate; it is not a biological or social issue

36. Varieties of Gender
Sex typing – thought processes that split the world into female and male categories
Greatly influences our thoughts and behaviors
Masculinity and femininity are independent traits

37. Masculinity: The Hunter
Rights of passage in many societies
Contradictions in the male role:
Provide, but don’t solely focus on career
Be sexually successful, but not degrading to women
Be strong and stable, but be emotionally available
Do not be dependent on a woman
Men have a less flexible role than women

38. Femininity: The Nurturer
Typically viewed as the opposite of masculinity
Characterized by beauty, empathy, concern, softness, modesty
Contradictions in the female role:
Job fulfillment, but stay at home with kids
Not just for looks, but use makeup/be thin
Opportunities are available, on men’s terms

39. Androgyny: Feminine and Masculine
Rate high in femininity and masculinity
Flexibility in behaviors
This concept may be reinforcing gender roles

40. Transgenderism: Living as the Other Sex
10-15% of the population
Live the other gender’s role, full/part-time
Happy as their biological sex, but psychosocially pleasured dressing as the other sex
Relaxing and peaceful to cross-dress
Billy Tipton

41. Billy Tipton was a well-known jazz musician who was discovered to be a female when he died in 1989.

42. Transsexualism: When Gender and Biology Don’t Agree
Feel their gender identity does not match their biological sex (Gender Dysphoria)
“Trapped” in the wrong body
More males than females experience this
Sex reassignment surgery involves a long process: psychological counseling, live as the other sex, hormones, multiple surgeries
M2F: realistic results, orgasm
F2M: experimental stages

44. Gender Identity Disorder: Jessica

45. Third Genders: Other Cultures, Other Options
Some cultures have a third gender category
Native American berdache
Oman xanˉ ýth
Indian hijra
Thai kathoey
Hawaiian aikane
Tahitian mahu

46. Asexualism: The Genetics but Not the Sex
Born without any sexual organs (no biological gender)
Has a genetic gender (XX or XY)
Typically assigned gender as a child and given hormones

47. Gender Role Socialization From Babyhood Through Old Age
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Senior Years

48. Childhood: Learning by Playing
Children are greatly defined by their gender
Name, clothing, decorations, toys
Treatment by parents, teachers, others
Model behavior of same gender individuals
Rewarded for stereotypical behavior, punished for nonstereotypical behavior (especially boys)
Homosocial play beginning 2½ to 3 years old

49. Perceiving Gender Roles: Ages 0-2

50. Perceiving Gender Roles: Ages 2-5

51. Adolescence: Practice Being Female or Male
Trying roles to determine what it is to be a man or woman
Difficult time for transgendered, homosexual, bisexual youth

52. Perceiving Gender Roles: Ages 5-11

53. Adulthood: Careers and Families
“Breadwinner” is a prized part of being male
Women pursue careers out of desire and necessity, yet hold primary responsibility for home life – more than men with the same occupation

54. Women and Family Life
Primary satisfaction/identity should be as wife and mother
Modern thought also insists on a career outside of the home
Often feel guilt for not adequately meeting both demands

55. Which Is the Real Me? One Woman With Many Hats

56. Men and Family Life
Fathers spend less time with their infants than mothers
Stay-at-home dads are becoming more common, but social pressure suggests they should be in the work force and labels them as “unemployed”

57. The Senior Years
Female with typical wife/mother role may experience “empty nest syndrome”
Adjustment required at retirement if a large part of identity was related to work
More relaxed gender roles

58. Different, But Not Less Than: Toward Gender Equality
Society has the ability to alter the gender roles to be less judging and rigid