1. Data Collection
Prof. Dr. Ali ŞEN

2. Objectives
After completion of this session the students should be able to:
Identify major types of data collection methods
Perform a data collection plan
Compare different type of Self-Reports
Discuss observational methods
Differentiate between validity and reliability

3. Outlines Part 1 :Measurement & data collection
Major types of data collection methods
Developing a data collection plan
Implementing a data collection plan
Research examples

4. Cont. Part 11 Self-Reports
Unstructured & Semi-Structured
Instruments
Questionnaires Versus interviews:
An assessment
Response Biases

5. cont. Part 3 :Observational methods
Observational methods: Unstructured observations
Structured observations

6. Cont, :Part 4. Assessing data quality
Measurement
Reliability of measuring instruments
Validity
Other criteria for assessing quantitative measure
Assessment of qualitative data

7. Introduction
Data collection means gathering information to address those critical evaluation questions that you have identified earlier in the evaluation process.
To plan data collection, you must think about the questions to be answered and the information sources available.

8. Cont, you must begin to think ahead about how the
information could be organized, analyzed, interpreted and then reported to various audiences
There are many methods available to gather information, and a wide variety of information sources.

9. Pre-Data Collection Steps
1. Clearly define the goals and objectives of the data collection
2. Reach understanding and agreement on operational definitions and methodology for
the data collection plan
3. Ensure data collection (and measurement) repeatability, reproducibility, accuracy,
and stability

10. What kind of data should be collected?
The information you collect is the evidence you will have available to answer the evaluation questions.
Poor evidence is information which cannot be trusted, is limited, or simply is not relevant to the questions asked.
Good evidence is information that comes from reliable sources
and through trustworthy methods that address important questions

11. There are two general types of information:
descriptive and judgmental. Descriptive information
can include the following examples:
Characteristics of the project
Reports of project accomplishments
Current skill or knowledge levels of project personnel
and the target audience
Amount of participation by the target audience
Policies concerning cost share
Rules regarding research
Types of participants
Demographic data

12. Judgmental information
Includes the following examples:
Opinions from experts or consultants
Consumer preferences
Target audience’s beliefs and values
Technical agency personnel’s interpretation of laws
Stakeholders perceived priorities
Stakeholders interpretation of guidelines

13. What methods should be used to collect data?
The selection of a method for collecting information must balance several concerns including
Resources available
Credibility
Analysis and reporting
Resources
And the skill of the evaluator

14. Major types of data collection methods
Three types of approach have been used most frequently by nurse researcher:
Self-reports
Observation
Biophysiologic

15. 1. Self-reports
Self-report data can be gathered either by oral interview or by written questionnaire
The self-report method is strong with respect to its directness & flexibility *If we want to know what people think, feel, or believe (qualitative data) the most direct means of gathering the information is to ask them about it.

16. Disadvantage of self-report
Verbal report instruments share a number of weaknesses. The most serious issue is the question of the validity & accuracy of self-report:
How can we really be sure that respondents feel or act the way they say they do?
How can we trust the information that respondents provide, particularly if the questions could potentially require them to reveal an unpopular position on a controversial issues?

17. Developing a data collection plan
Identify types of data needed for the study
Select the types of measures to measure each variable
Select and/or develop instruments
Secure written permission to use each instrument
Pilot test researcher-developed instrument & revise plan
Develop data collection forms and procedures
Implement data collection plan

18. 1-Identify types of data needed for the study
1-Testing hypothesis or answering research questions
2-Describe characteristics of sample
Demographics - age, gender, ethnic origin, education background, marital status
Health-related variables - health habits, diet, exercise, illness, length of illness,
3- Control for extraneous variables
Measure as many as possible
Intrinsic and extrinsic factors (variables)
May want to see if main effects also apply to

19. Cont. 4- Analyze data 5-Interpretation of results
Consider results that do not fit desired outcomes
Identify what data might explain undesirable
Obtain administrative data
Records of subject ID=s
Data on number of times subjects recruited or approached, dates of data
collection, length of time for data collection, location, time of day, and who collected data
Who, what, when, where, and how of data collection

20. 2 Select the types of measures to measure each variable
Each variable must be measured - quantified
Highly structured measurement takes time and testing to develop, yet gives data easier to analyze both descriptively and inferentially
Objective measurement of phenomenon
Better to use multiple methods to measure variables - self-reports, observations, and physiologic measures
Need to consider ethics, cost, time, staff, and stress on pt./family &/or agency personnel

21. 3-Select and/or develop instruments
Identify existing instruments
Fit with conceptual definition of variable
Quality of instrument - validity & reliability
Validity:
Will the information collection methods you have designed produce information that measures what you say you are measuring? Be sure that the information you collect is relevant to the evaluation questions you are intending to answer.
Reliability:
Will the evaluation process you have designed consistently measure what you want it to measure? If you use multiple interviews, settings, or observers, will they consistently measure
the same thing each time? If you design an instrument, will people interpret your questions the same way each time?

22. Instrument use & scoring Data collectors salary Subject compensaton
Cont.
Resources - costs
Instrument use & scoring
Data collectors salary
Subject compensaton
Availability & familiarity
Researcher expertise
Equipment
Norms - comparability
Established norms for instrument - provide comparison group
Replication - use same instruments
Populations appropriateness
Reading level & writing ability
Cultural , ethnic origin
Gender biased
Translations for non-English speaking subjects

23. 4 Secure written permission to use each instrument
Look for employer and write to author at place of employment
Find most recent publication to identify current employer
Request a copy of the instrument and information on scoring, procedures, validity, and reliability

24. Develop instrument, pilot test researcher-developed instrument
Revise it plan Instrument based on theoretical framework of study
Pilot test on small scale & evaluate before administration large group
Determine amount of time to complete instrument

25. Areas problematic for subjects
Difficult to understand & reading level too high
Offensive terminology
Sequencing of questions
Training of data collectors
How well instrument discriminates among subjects - detects differences in subjects
Revise instrument based on pilot

26. 6 Develop data collection forms and procedures
Screening potential subjects
Consent & assent forms
Explanations to potential subjects for people referring subjects
Advertisements to recruit subjects
Records for tracking contacts with subjects
Mailing lists and logs for receipts

27. Specific conditions for data collection
Cont.
Procedures
Specific conditions for data collection
Specific procedures and sequencing for experiments
Standard information for subject's questions
Procedures for risks if they occur
List of all materials needed
Interview guidelines, instruments, observation directions

28. 7 Implement data collection plan
Select who will collect data
Researcher or neutral agent
Staff
Experience
Background similar to subject
Unremarkable appearance - dress, make-up, jewelry
Personality - pleasant, sociable, non-judgmental, non-threatening
Available to collect data for the entire study period

29. Training data collectors
Includes general principles of data collection & specifics for study
Data collection training manual
Review manual, forms, and procedures
Demonstrate data collection and return demonstration with videotape
Periodic observation of data collection to verify procedures are followed

30. Self-reports Approaches to collect self report data Unstructured
Semi- Unstructured
Self report techniques
Interviews
verbal communication between research and subject; commonly used in exploratory and descriptive studies
Unstructured interview
1- subject's world view; open-ended questions with probes and prompting; qualitative; audiotape

31. Semi-structured interview -
1 subject; list of topics or questions for discussion with additional probes, aka topic guide; uses both open
and close-ended questions; taped
Structured interview –
1 subject; specific questions asked in
Consistent order using the same words each time; no variation from questions and no explanation of unclear questions

32. Focus group interview
5 to 15 subjects in a group;
Interviewer/moderator asks open-ended questions; efficient yet some individuals inhibited by others in the group
Life history - anthropologic; chronologic changes; sequence of events
Critical incident - subject describes an event (incident) from his viewpoint r/t research topic

33. Diary - subject's daily log describing own experiences r/t the research topic
Instruments - interview schedule with questions and space to record answers; tape recordings of face-to-face or telephone interviews
Interviewer training - pilot testing; familiar with content and situations encountered with interviewing; practice maintaining unbiased verbal and nonverbal communication

34. Gathering unstructured self report data
good listener good questioner; make subject relaxed and open; maintain focus on the topic; summarize and close on a positive note
Evaluate unstructured approach data
Explore new topics and experiences; time consuming and demanding

35. Structured self report instrument
Types of closed-ended questions
1- Dichotomous items –
2 opposing choices; yes/no or true/false
2- Multiple choice -- >2 choices from which subject selects 1 option
3- Rank-order - subject places options in rank or order of importance based on tool directions
4-Forced-choice - 2 polar alternative statements; similar to dichotomous, but in the form of sentences rather than singl words

36. 5- Rating - Likert scale; semantic differential scale
Psychological tests
Personality inventories – mmpi, Edwards personal preference
Projective techniques – Rorschach inkblot test; Thematic Apperception Test (tell a story based on a picture)

37. Administering self-report instruments
Interviews
Put subject at ease
Punctual, friendly, courteous, respectful
Privacy – obtain written consent
Check tape recorder function before each interview; bring extra batteries and tapes
Remain neutral
Use interview guide for consistency

38. Advantages of interview
Better response rates
Wider range of subjects
Can clarify questions
Greater depth of questions
Decreases missing information
Order of questions controlled
Adds supplementary observational data

39. Questionnaires Group or individuals – easy with group
Personal contact with subjects or mailed
Want response rate of at least 60% to avoid response bias
Cover letter stating completion and return of questionnaire indicates
consent of subject
Can drop off and pick up in person or mail
Mailing with follow-up plan – questionnaire, postcard, questionnaire,
postcard
Advantages - Cheaper, anonymity, no interviewer bias

40. Response biases of subjects
Social desirability – chooses answer most socially acceptable
Response set – items influence the subjects response to other items
Extreme responses – selects response on either extreme end of poles

41. Acquiescence response
yeah-sayers – always agrees with statement; use both positive and negative statements to counterbalance this response
Nay-Sayers – always disagrees with statement; use both positive and negative statements to
counterbalance this response

42. Tips for wording the question
Clearly stated
Bias decreased
Sensitive information – respect subject
Worded so that subjects can respond to questions
Short sentences – ask only 1 question at a time; positive statements

43. Cont.
Avoid leading questions; focus on research objectives and questions
Use closed-ended questions with socially unacceptable topics
Do not assume subjects are well informed about topic
Impersonal wording of items without "I"
Mutually exclusive item choices

44. Observational methods
Gathering data through visual, auditory, tactile and other senses
Phenomenon
Characteristics of individuals
Verbal & nonverbal communication behavior
Activities
Skill attainment and performance
Environmental characteristics
Steps in observation
Decide what to observe
Determine how to conduct observation to ensure every variable observed in same manner Orient and provide written instructions to observers
Validate accuracy and consistency of observation techniques

45. Observational Methods
Unstructured observations
No planning – spontaneous
Observer freedom
Risk loss of objectivity
Requires excellent memory & interpersonal skills
Structured observations
Define what is to be observed
Define how observations will be made, recorded, and coded
Recording structured observations

46. Participant observations – observer & subject interact to some degree duration observation
Overt – subject aware of observation
Covert – subject not aware of observation
Non-participant observations –
observer and subject do not interact; can be overt or covert
Timing of observations
Time sampling – making an observation for a specified length of time at pre-determined intervals (eg observe for 5 minutes every 15 minutes or observe for 5 minutes 3 randomly selected times each hour)
Event sampling – making an observation whenever an event occurs

47. 111-Biophysiologic Methods
Purposes
Basic physiology with relevance for nursing care
Ways that nursing actions or medical interventions affect patient health outcomes
Evaluation of specific nursing procedures or interventions testing a hypothesis
Improving measurement and recording of biophysiologic data collected by RN
Correlation of physiologic function in patient with health problems

48. Major types
In vivo
Measurements performed directly with in or on living organisms themselves
May use complex instrumentation system with computers
May be simple – thermometer, pulse oximeter, stethoscope
In vitro
Measurements performed outside the organism’s body Specimens collected and tested outside body
Blood chemistries, microbiologic, cytologic specimens …………………………….SCAN

49. Considerations for physiologic measurements
Will measure yield good information? Does it fit research
questions/hypothesis and variables of study?
What other methods of measurement could be used? Invasive &
noninvasive
Equipment and supply costs; reliability of equipment and complexity of operation
Training of personnel

50. Thank You!
Prof. Dr. Ali ŞEN