1. Some developmental researchers argue that: – Correlations between parenting behavior and children’s behavior mainly reflect Direct transmission of genes from parent to child (passive g-e correlations) Effects of children’s genes on parenting behavior (evocative g-e correlations)

2. – Some researchers (e.g., Rowe, 1994; Scarr, 1992) argue that the presence of these g-e correlations indicates that genetic differences (rather than parenting or other environmental influences) are the main influence on children’s behavior and characteristics

3. Challenges 1.Maccoby (2000) argues that assuming evocative g-e correlations reflect genetic influence underestimates parenting effects – Ignores bidirectional influences between parent and child Children do elicit/evoke different responses from parents based on genetic differences But parents’ responses are also likely to change child behavior

4. 2.Additive model of genetic and environmental influence is not valid – G + E = 100% of variation – Assumes that genes and environment are independent – G-E correlations (and G-E interactions) do not “fit” in an additive model

5. 3.In research that accounts for g-e correlations, there are still independent effects of parenting

6. O’ Connor, Deater-Deckard, Fulker, Rutter, & Plomin (1998) – Examined relations between “coercive” parenting and antisocial behavior in late childhood/early adolescence – Longitudinal adoption design using data from the Colorado Adoption Project

7. Adopted children were classified as being at genetic risk (n = 38) or not (n = 50) for antisocial behavior – Based on biological mothers’ self-report of their own antisocial behavior (collected prior to birth of child) Adoptive parents reported on their own parenting beginning children were 7 and continuing through age 12 – Negative control, inconsistent parenting, positive parenting

8. Findings: Children at genetic risk were more likely to receive negative parenting from adoptive parents than children not at risk – Indicates an evocative gene-environment correlation Association between negative parenting and children’s antisocial behavior – Most of this association was not explained by the g-e correlation – Suggests an independent effect of parenting on children’s behavior

9. Gene-Environment Interactions An interaction is indicated if: – The same environment has different effects on two organisms, depending on the organisms’ genes – Organisms with a given set of genetic traits react in one way under one set of environmental conditions but another way under different environmental conditions

10. G-E interactions do not “fit” an additive model Studies indicate interactions between child temperament and parenting behavior

11. Bates, Pettit, Dodge, & Ridge (1998) Examined relations between “restrictive parenting” and temperament dimension of “resistance to control” – “Resistance to control” = child’s failure to comply with parental attempts to stop or to redirect the child’s action – “Restrictive Parenting” = Efforts such as prohibitions, warnings, and scoldings to manage inconvenient or potentially harmful child actions

12. Examined these variables in relation to externalizing behavior problems at ages 7 to 11 years Findings indicated an interaction between restrictive parenting and temperamental resistance to control – Resistance to control was more strongly related to externalizing behaviors when mothers were low in restrictive parenting

13. Studies in the field of molecular genetics also indicate gene-environment interactions – Mostly animal research to date – Very promising avenue for identifying and understanding g-e interactions in human development

14. Suomi and colleagues Have identified an allele of a gene that is associated with a “reactive” (fearful) temperament in Rhesus monkeys Monkeys carrying the reactive allele are more vulnerable to early maternal deprivation than monkeys without the allele – Less socially competent and less competent in mothering their own offspring Also evidence that “cross-fostering” newborn reactive monkeys to non-reactive mothers buffers them from developing strongly reactive behavior