1. Determining the Sampling Plan
Audhesh Paswan, Ph.D.
University of North Texas

2. Basic Concepts in Samples
Population - the entire group under study as specified by the objectives of the research project.
Sample - a subset of the population that should represent that entire group.
Sample unit - the basic level of investigation (e.g., household, individual).
Census - an accounting of the complete population.

3. Basic Concepts in Sampling
Sampling error - error in a survey that occurs because a sample is used (caused by two factors).
The method of sample selection
The size of the sample
Sample frame - a list of the population of interest.
Sample frame error - the degree to which a sample frame fails to account for all of the population.

4. Examples of sample frame errors
Phone book
Yellow pages
Any incomplete population lists

5. Why sample? A sample is almost always more desirable than a census
Population size and expense.
Cannot analyze the huge amount of data generated by a census.

6. Basic Sampling Methods
Probability samples - members of the population have a known chance (I.e., probability) of being selected into the sample.
Nonprobability samples - the chances (I.e., probabilities) of selecting members from the population of interest into the sample are unknown.

7. Probability Methods - Simple Random Sampling
Probability is known and equal for all members of the population.
P(selection)=(sample size)/(population size)
The "Blind Draw" Method
The Table of Random Numbers Method

8. Advantages and Disadvantages
Derives unbiased estimates
Valid representation of the population
Disadvantages
Must pre-designate each population member.
May be difficult to obtain a complete listing.
May be too cumbersome

9. Systematic Sampling One of most prevalent types used
Advantage: "economic efficiency" (i.e., quick and easy).
It employs a random starting point
Every kth element in the population is designated for inclusion in the sample (after a random start).
Create a sample that is almost identical in quality to simple random sampling.

10. Skip interval = (population list size)/(sample size)
Systematic Sample
Example 1: Sample the population of phone customers in Denton by taking every 10th number in the phone book. (Be sure to start randomly on one of the first 10 numbers.)
Example 2: Sample every 5th customer
Skip interval = (population list size)/(sample size)

11. How to Take a Systematic Sample
Step 1: Identify a listing of the population that contains an acceptable level of sample frame error.
Step 2: Compute the skip interval.
Step 3: Using random number(s), determine a starting position.
Step 4: Apply the skip interval.
Step 5: Treat the list as "circular."

12. Cluster Sampling Population is divided into subgroups (cluster)
Each cluster represents the entire population.
Must identify clusters that are identical to the population and to each other.
The parent population is divided into mutually exclusive and exhaustive subsets.

13. Cluster Sampling
Subgroups should be heterogeneous within and homogeneous between. (i.e., Subsets should each look representative of the total population.)
Advantages: less cost to obtain a sample; good for personal interviews (proximity)
Limitations: difficult to find subsets that truly meet the criteria mentioned above; lower statistical efficiency (higher error)

14. Area Sampling as a Form of Cluster Sampling
Population subdivided into areas (e.g., cities or neighborhoods)
One-step approach - one area is selected randomly; perform a census of the cluster
Two-step approach
Step 1: Select a random sample of clusters.
Step 2: Randomly select individuals within the clusters.

15. How to Take an Area Sampling Using Subdivisions
Step 1: Determine the geographic area to be surveyed, and identify its subdivisions. Each subdivision should be highly similar to all others.
Step 2: Decide on the use of one-step or two-step cluster sampling.
Step 3: Using random numbers, select the subdivisions to be sampled (Assuming two-step).
Step 4: Using some probability method of sample selection, select the members of each chosen subdivision to be included in the sample.

16. Meanpopulation = (meanA)(proportionA)+ (meanB)(proportionB)
Stratified Sampling
Separates the population into different subgroups and then samples all of the subgroups.
Does not assume the population has a "normal" distribution.
Addresses "skewed" distribution problems.
Weighted mean
Meanpopulation = (meanA)(proportionA)+ (meanB)(proportionB)

17. Stratified Sample
A probability sample distinguished by a two-step procedure:
Divide the population into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive subsets.
Take a simple random sample of elements from each subset (independently).
The subsets are called “strata”.
Each population member can be assigned to one and only one stratum.

18. Stratified Sampling Advantages:
Produces a more concentrated distribution of estimates (leads to more precise statistics and smaller sampling error); fewer possible sample means that deviate widely from the true population mean.
Can reduce variation within each stratum, which reduces the error of the estimate
Guarantees representation of certain subgroups of interest.
Limitation: cost of sampling several strata

19. Bases for Stratification
Strata should be divided by a known characteristic that is expected to be related to the characteristic of interest.
Example: If we are interested in magazine readership, we can stratify on the basis of education level. This should result in less variation within each stratum.
The strata should be homogeneous within and heterogeneous between groups.

20. How to Take a Stratified Sample
Step 1: Be assured that the population's distribution for some key factor is not bell-shaped and that separate populations exist.
Step 2: Use this factor or some surrogate variable to divide the population into strata consistent with the separate sub-populations identified.
Step 3: Select a probability sample from each stratum
Step 4: Examine each stratum for managerially relevant differences.
Step 5: If strata sample sizes are not proportionate to the stratum sizes in the population, use the weighted mean formula to estimate the population value(s).

21. Nonprobability Samples
Convenience samples - drawn at the convenience of the interviewer.
Judgement samples - requires and "educated guess" as to who should represent the population.
Referral samples - a.k.a. "snowball samples"
Quota samples - a specified quota for various types of individuals to be interviewed is established.

22. Stratified versus Quota Sample
Similarities:
Population is divided into segments (strata).
Elements are selected from each segment.
Key Difference:
Stratified sampling uses probability methods.
Quota samples are based on a researcher’s judgment.
Therefore, stratified sampling allows the establishment of the sampling distribution, confidence intervals and statistical tests.

23. Developing a Sample Plan
Step 1: Define the relevant population
Step 2: Obtain sample frame
Step 3: Design the sample plan
Step 4: Access the population
Step 5: Draw the sample
Step 6: Validate the sample
Step 7: Resample, if necessary.

24. Determining Sample Size

25. Sample Accuracy
How close the sample’s profile is to the true population’s profile
Sample size is not related to representativeness,
Sample size is related to accuracy

26. Methods of Determining Sample Size
Compromise between what is theoretically perfect and what is practically feasible.
Remember, the larger the sample size, the more costly the research.
Why sample one more person than necessary?

27. Methods of Determining Sample Size
Arbitrary
Rule of Thumb (ex. A sample should be at least 5% of the population to be accurate
Not efficient or economical
Conventional
Follows that there is some “convention” or number believed to be the right size
Easy to apply, but can end up with too small or too large of a sample

28. Methods of Determining Sample Size
Cost Basis
based on budgetary constraints
Statistical Analysis
certain statistical techniques require certain number of respondents
Confidence Interval
theoretically the most correct method

29. Notion of Variability
Little variability
Great variability
Mean

30. Notion of Variability Standard Deviation
approximates the average distance away from the mean for all respondents to a specific question
indicates amount of variability in sample
ex. compare a standard deviation of 500 and 1000, which exhibits more variability?

31. Measures of Variability
Standard Deviation: indicates the degree of variation or diversity in the values in such as way as to be translatable into a normal curve distribution
Variance = (x-x)2/ (n-1)
With a normal curve, the midpoint (apex) of the curve is also the mean and exactly 50% of the distribution lies on either side of the mean. i

32. Normal Curve and Standard Deviation

33. Notion of Sampling Distribution
The sampling distribution refers to what would be found if the researcher could take many, many independent samples
The means for all of the samples should align themselves in a normal bell-shaped curve
Therefore, it is a high probability that any given sample result will be close to but not exactly to the population mean.

34. Normal, bell-shaped curve
Midpoint
(mean)

35. Notion of Confidence Interval
A confidence interval defines endpoints based on knowledge of the area under a bell-shaped curve.
Normal curve
1.96 times the standard deviation theoretically defines 95% of the population
2.58 times the standard deviation theoretically defines 99% of the population

36. Notion of Confidence Interval
Example
Mean = 12,000 miles
Standard Deviation = 3000 miles
We are confident that 95% of the respondents’ answers fall between 6,120 and 17,880 miles
12,000 + (1.96 * 3000) = 17,880
12,000 - (1.96 * 3000) = 6.120

37. Notion of Standard Error of a Mean
Standard error is an indication of how far away from the true population value a typical sample result is expected to fall.
Formula
S X = s / (square root of n)
S p = Square root of {(p*q)/ n}
where S p is the standard error of the percentage
p = % found in the sample and q = (100-p)
S X is the standard error of the mean
s = standard deviation of the sample
n = sample size

38. Computing Sample Size Using The Confidence Interval Approach
To compute sample size, three factors need to be considered:
amount of variability believed to be in the population
desired accuracy
level of confidence required in your estimates of the population values

39. Determining Sample Size Using a Mean
Formula: n = (pqz2)/e2
Formula: n = (s2z2)/e2
Where
n = sample size
z = level of confidence (indicated by the number of standard errors associated with it)
s = variability indicated by an estimated standard deviation
p = estimated variability in the population
q = (100-p)
e = acceptable error in the sample estimate of the population

40. Determining Sample Size Using a Mean: An Example
95% level of confidence (1.96)
Standard deviation of 100 (from previous studies)
Desired precision is 10 (+ or -)
Therefore n = 384
(1002 * 1.962) / 102

41. Practical Considerations in Sample Size Determination
How to estimate variability in the population
prior research
experience
intuition
How to determine amount of precision desired
small samples are less accurate
how much error can you live with?

42. Practical Considerations in Sample Size Determination
How to calculate the level of confidence desired
risk
normally use either 95% or 99%

43. Determining Sample Size
Higher n (sample size) needed when:
the standard error of the estimate is high (population has more variability in the sampling distribution of the test statistic)
higher precision (low degree of error) is needed (i.e., it is important to have a very precise estimate)
higher level of confidence is required
Constraints: cost and access

44. Notes About Sample Size
Population size does not determine sample size.
What most directly affects sample size is the variability of the characteristic in the population.
Example: if all population elements have the same value of a characteristic, then we only need a sample of one!