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2. Many students that have taken Earth Science have shown the ability to be accurate. Accuracy is the ability to hit the target you are aiming for, in this class that could be a correct answer on a test that asks you to perform a set task. What only a few students have shown is the ability to be precise. Precision requires that you are able to reproduce results time after time. This unit focuses on honing your ability to be both accurate and precise throughout the course. http://www.salon.com/2013/05/20/sats_right_answers_are_all_ wrong_partner/

3. Let’s begin with some basic mathematical equations you could be counted on to use during the year. These are found on the front page of your Earth Science Reference Tables.  These will be known as your ESRTs or just Reference Tables  The ESRTs are the single most important document you will receive this year

4. There are 4 essential equations you will need to be familiar with in order to be successful in the course:  Eccentricity: This equation helps determine the “roundness” of an orbital path (for example, the Earth’s path around the Sun)  Gradient: This equation helps show the change of measurements over a distance (for example, the change in elevation over a distance on a mountain)

5. Additional Equations  Rate of Change: This equation helps show how quickly or slowly a change happens (for example, a change in air pressure over 24 hours)  Density: Describes the mass within a given volume of an object (for example, the density of a basalt sample)

6. Ensuring Accuracy In order to ensure that your responses are accurate throughout the course, there are some fundamental concepts you need to understand.  Rounding: When asked to round a number, round up only if the number to the right is 5 or higher. There is no “rounding down”  Know how to extend an answer or shorten it to the tenths, hundredths, or thousandths places

7. Accuracy Beyond Whole Numbers Often we want to know measurements that are more accurate than simply a whole number.  0.0  To the tenths place  0.00  To the hundredths place  0.000  To the thousandths place

8. Units Almost all measurements in Earth Science must be coupled with units. One exception is when eccentricity is calculated.  All answers must include units unless they are already printed

9. Lines As Equations You may be familiar with how you can graphically represent an equation in math. The same is possible in Earth Science, but in a much more simplified way.  The lines you draw in Earth Science will be equal to a value. They are called isolines.

10. Isolines  Isolines ISOLATE differing values in Earth Science  These values can measure a number of things, such as:  Temperature  Pressure  Elevation  Pollution Concentration

11. Properties of Isolines Think of isolines like fences that separate neighbors. The neighbors live at different addresses and the isolines keep those properties separate.  Rules for Isolines:  Isolines cannot cross (they are never equal in value)  Isolines must be drawn in smooth arcing lines  All isolines are a part of a closed loop, whether or not you can see the whole loop. All loops must continue off the page unless they close on the page.

12. Isoline Rhyme  Remember: If true, go through (with your line)  If your line is in between the two values it must continue between those two points.  This is the 50 ft. contour line (contour lines measure elevation), notice how it passes in-between 49 and 51.

13. Practice The following are temperature measurements for a classroom in degrees Celsius. Draw isotherms for every 2 degrees Celsius.

14. Determining the Value of an Isoline How is an isoline’s value determined if it isn’t labeled? Only some isolines are labeled.  These are known as index isolines  Steps can be taken in order to determine the value of all unlabeled lines

15. Steps to determining isoline intervals:  Determine the difference in value between 2 close index isolines (lines that are labeled)  600-500 = 100

16. 5 4 3 2 1 Step #2:  Count the number of lines from one index isoline to the next  1, 2, 3, 4, 5

17. Step #3:  Divide:  (Difference between index isolines)/ # of isolines  100 / 5 = 20  Each line increases or decreases by 20 580 560 540 520

18. In Earth Science we sometimes would like to know how quickly values change on a field map. We can actually assign a number to this change by using the equation for gradient:  Gradient = change in field value / distance

19. Determining Gradient  Find the difference in value between points  Divide by the distance between those points In this example, let’s assume the distance between points is 2 miles and the measurements on the map are in feet.  600 – 500 = 100  100 / 2 miles

20. Graphing in Earth Science You will often be asked to use graphs to display data on in-class tests, the midterm, and the final. There are 3 common graphs found in Earth Science:  Line Graphs  Bar Graphs  Relationships Graphs

21. General Rules  Be accurate: all points/bars must be correct for the graph to be considered accurate.  Label axes where appropriate and recheck all points/bars

22. Line Graphs  Line graphs typically show a change in value over time  All points must be connected with a continuous line

23. Bar Graphs  Bar graphs usually show values of different entities  Example: Rotational periods of planets  All bars must be flat across the top and NOT angled

24. Relationships Graphs  Show relationships between two things  Negative: As X increases, Y decreases or as X decreases, Y increases  Positive: As X increases, Y increases or as Y increases, X increases

25. In Earth Science we will often be dealing with very large numbers. Since this is the case, it becomes necessary in some instances to use scientific notation to represent numbers. Scientific notation will look something like this: 1 x 10 3 or 1.0 x 10 3 The exponent dictates the direction the decimal must move in order to express the number in standard form. If the exponent is positive:  The decimal moves to the right, equal to the number of the exponent  Example: 1 x 10 3  1000

26. If the exponent is negative (1 x 10 -3 ):  The decimal moves to the left, equal to the number of the exponent  Example: 1 x 10 -3  0.001

27. Converting Standard Form Numbers to Scientific Notation The number being written must begin with a number higher than zero and only a single digit before the decimal point. For example: 0.00093 will become 9.3 If the decimal moved to the right, the exponent is equal to the number of spaces it moved with a preceding (-) For the example above: 0.00093 will ultimately become 9.3 x 10 -4 If the decimal moved to the left, the exponent is positive. 867,000 will become 8.67 x 10 5