1. Diachronic semantics: changes of meaning of words over time and the consequences for keeping classification systems up to date
ISKO UK Conference 2015, July, London
Drahomira Cupar, PhD
Department of Information Sciences
University of Zadar, Croatia

2. Contents Introduction Theoretical and methodological framework
Research
Methodology
Results: examples from the research
Conclusions
Bibliography
ISKO UK Conference 2015, July, London

3. Words change meanings over time
Introduction
Words change meanings over time
Causes of changes: cultural, social, political, geographical, technological, etc.
E. g. development of new disciplines, extinction of old phenomenon, dividing of a country, growth in the publishing sector
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4. Classification environment = ecosystem
Society
class scheme
classifier
scheme creator
user
resource
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5. Theoretical and methodological framework
KOS / library classification (UDC) + revision process
Diachronic semantics
Borrowing theories
“The language is a system of signs.” (de Saussure, 1916)
Classification is an artificial language (Svenonius, 2000)
ISKO UK Conference 2015, July, London

6. Borrowing theories and methodologies
Borrowing other fields’ methodology provides different angle for looking at the research topic (Jaeger 2010, Floyd 2009)
Examples:
Taxonomy – classification
Ecology – information landscape (metaphor)
Ontogeny (Tennis) – development of classification
 Diachronic semantics
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7. The procedure of borrowing and adjusting theory
Natural vs. artificial language
Similarities on different levels:
the elements of the language – “words”,
i.e. UDC numbers
sets of rules on how to build a sentence – “grammar”
for building a complex number, classification system uses citation order
rules on how to build relations between elements – “syntax”
relations among UDC numbers
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8. The research
Using methodological apparatus of diachronic semantics to analyse the changes that occur in classification systems over time.
Main goal of this research is to recognize and name relations between changed numbers in UDC (first and changed number) and by using mechanisms of diachronic semantics analyse causes of changes in meanings.
Mechanisms of diachronic semantics include: metaphor, metonymy, specialization, generalization, analogy and splitting [+ merging – added later].
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9. The classification of the mechanisms of semantic changes in diachronic semantics (Raffaelli 2009)
External mechanisms
Analogy
Internal mechanisms
Splitting
metaphor
Primary
metonymy
generalization
Secondary
specialization
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Metaphor – black sheep in the family;
Metonymy – library – for staff or books, pen – for written word

10. Mechanisms of DS – redefined
specialization – indicates narrowing or specialization of the meaning; a new classification number has narrower meaning in comparison to the starting classification number;
generalization – indicates broadening or generalization of the meaning; a new classification number has broader, more general meaning in the comparison to the starting classification number;
metaphor – indicates transfer of meaning from one classification number to another, based on the conceptual similarities (one or more similar characteristics);
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11. The Mechanisms of DS – redefined
metonymy – indicates transfer of the meaning from one classification number to another, based on the conceptual closeness; [similarity vs closeness?]
analogy – indicates transfer of meaning from one classification number or several numbers by mimicking process which caught its close or similar structure;
splitting – a mechanism which indicates splitting of the meaning in two or more different meanings, and
*merging – mechanism used to describe semantic changes when meanings of two or more UDC numbers merge and absorb additional meaning (addition to the theory of diachronic semantics!)
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12. Methodology
Extraction of 1500 UDC numbers from Cancellation files (UDC Consortium, )
Research area: UDC main class 2 Religion. Theology
The span of 15 years: from 1995 till 2009
Note: in the year 2000 main class 2 Religion. Theology was transformed into fully faceted class
Analysis of changed meanings was done on the class captions
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13. The main research question
How can we identify changes in meanings between two changed UDC captions using mechanisms of semantic change from diachronic semantics?
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14. Results: examples from the research
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15. Results 34% (526 UDC captions) – no semantic changes
26% (397 UDC captions) – generalization
almost 8% (104 captions) – splitting
Splitting has happened without semantic changes in the cancelled and changed captions.
82 examples (5%) – specialization
metaphor was rare – only in 16 captions (around 1%) [all examples under question mark!]
analogy could be seen in less than 1% (13 captions) [!]
Other results showed combination of mechanisms
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16. Table 1. The example of the analysis of changes with diachronic semantics on UDC number 211
UDC caption
UDC notation
Divided into..., ... and into...: splitting
Replaced by: notation
Replaced by: caption
Mechanism of diachronic semantics
God. The Deity. The Supreme Being. Deism. Theism. Atheism
211
1:4
2-14 God
God. Gods (Personalized god(s) as distinct from immanent spirits.
splitting: specialization
Deism
Creator God. Demi-urge. Designer god. Deism.
Theism
Preserver god. Theism. Providence. Safekeeping and governance of the world.
299.2 Atheism
Atheism.

17. Mechanism of diachronic semantics
UDC caption
UDC notation
Replaced by: notation
Replaced by: caption
Mechanism of diachronic semantics
God. The Deity. The Supreme Being. Deism. Theism. Atheism
211
2-14 God
God. God(s). (Personalised god(s) as distinct from immanent spirits.
splitting: specialization
Deism
Creator God. Demi-urge. Designer god. Deism.
Theism
Preserver god. Theism. Providence. Safekeeping and governance of the world.
299.2 Atheism
Atheism.
God: concept, definition, nature, essence. Aseity. First cause. Prime mover. The supernatural in religion and nature. Universality of belief in God
211.2
2-13 The Holy. The supernatural,
The holy. The sacred The supernatural. Objects of religion/worship
splitting: generalization
Divinities. Objects of religion
291.21
2-14
specialization
Gods. Personified abstractions and divinities considered as pure spirit
0 (no semantic changes)

18. Conclusions (1)
Diachronic semantics shows one approach to analysis and interpretation of changed meanings in the artificial language, i.e. UDC classification.
This research shows advancement in applying methodological framework of another discipline in the field of information sciences.
Categorization of changes and maintaining history of the changes with diachronic semantics mechanisms can be used for better understanding of what has happened during the revision process.
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19. Conclusions (2)
However, it is not yet clear how can we measure exact percentage of meaning transferred from particular UDC number [e.g ] into other numbers [e.g and 2-14].
It is not possible to say exact ratios or percentages of accuracy which happened during transfer of meaning but it is possible to say under which circumstances those changes occurred.
In order to give more accurate results or to be taken under consideration of possible implementation, this theory and research methodology needs more testing.
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20. Bibliography ISKO UK Conference 2015, 13-14 July, London
Akdag Salah, Almila et al The evolution of classification systems: Ontogeny of the UDC. In Categories, contexts and relations in knowledge organization, Proceedings of the Twelfth International ISKO Conference / eds. Neelameghan, A. and Raghavan, K.S., 6-9 August 2012, Mysore, India. Würzburg: Ergon-Verlag. p Available at <arxiv.org/pdf/ >
Broughton, Vanda A new classification for the literature of religion. 66th IFLA Council and General Conference, Jerusalem, Israel, August Available at <
Cancellations to the UDC. Available at <
Curwen, Anthony G Revision of classification schemes: policies and practices. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 10,
de Saussure, Ferdinand Tečaj opće lingvistike. Zagreb : ArtTresor naklada; Institut za hrvatski jezik i jezikoslovlje.
Floyd, Steven W Borrowing’ theory: what does this mean and when does it make sense in management scholarship? Journal of management studies, 46(6),
Gavranović, Drahomira Modelling of diachronic aspect of semantics of classification numbers in Universal decimal classification system (UDC). Unpublished dissertation. University of Zadar, Croatia. [in Croatian]
Geeraerts, Dirk Diachronic prototype semantics: a contribution to historical lexicology. Oxford University Press: New York
Györi, Gábor Semantic change and cognition. Cognitive linguistics, 13(2), 123–166.
Jaeger, Paul T From the editor: Education, adoption, and development: building a culture of social theory in LIS. The library quarterly, 80(3),
Major changes to the UDC Available at <
McIlwaine, Ia C The Universal Decimal Classification: A guide to its use. The Hague: UDC Consortium.
McIlwaine, Ia C., Mitchell, J. S The new ecumenism: Exploration of a DDC/UDC view of religion. Extensions & Corrections to the UDC, 28, 9-16.
Raffaelli, Ida Značenje kroz vrijeme. Disput: Zagreb.
Revised UDC tables Extensions and corrections to the UDC, 22, at
Svenonius, Elaine The Intellectual foundation of information organization. MIT Press.
Tennis, Joseph T Subject ontogeny: subject access through time and the dimensionality of classification. In Proceedings of the Seventh International ISKO Conference/ Ed. by M. J. Lopez-Huertas Granada, July Würzburg: Ergon Verlag, p
Tennis, Joseph T. 2007a. Diachronic and synchronic indexing: modelling conceptual change in indexing languages. In Information sharing in a fragmented world, crossing boundaries. Proceedings of the 35th Annual Meeting of the Canadian Association for Information Science. Montreal, Quebec. Available at < >
Tennis, Joseph T. 2007b. Scheme Versioning in the Semantic Web. Cataloging and Classification Quarterly 43 (4/3),
Tennis, Joseph T. 2012a. The strange case of eugenics: a subject’s ontogeny in a long-lived classification scheme and the question of collocative integrity. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 63 (7),
UDC Consortium. Available at <
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21. (for using classification in your life)
Thank you
(for using classification in your life)
ISKO UK Conference 2015, July, London

22. Contact Drahomira Cupar, PhD University of Zadar
Department of Information Sciences
ISKO UK Conference 2015, July, London