1. For B.Sc Chemistry (General), Part- I By Dr. Kakoli Banerjee Department of Chemistry

2. Aims and Objectives  Definition of Radioactivity  Discovery of Radioactivity- The Pioneers  Cause of Radioactivity- Nuclear Instability  Discussion on the three most important types of emissions- Effects of α, β and γ rays  Radioactive decay & half-life  Nuclear Reactions- Fission & Fusion  Where is Radioactivity encountered?  Hazards of Radioactivity

3. Radioactivity- A spontaneous phenomenon A natural and spontaneous process by which the unstable atoms of an element emit or radiate excess energy in the form of particles or waves After emission the remaining daughter atom can either be a lower energy form of the same element or a completely different element

4. The Pioneers  Roentgen: (Discoverer of X-rays 1895)  Becquerel: (Discoverer of Radioactivity 1896)  Rutherford: (Discoverer Alpha and Beta rays 1897)  The Curies: (Discoverers of Radium and Polonium 1900-1908)

5. n/p ratio in stable isotopes

6. Comparison between types of radiation

7. Radioactive Kinetics-1 st order reaction  Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei. Initially (at t = 0), we have N o nuclei, and at time t, we have N nuclei. This rate is proportional to N, and the proportional constant is called decay constant. dN A = – ––––– = N Integration gives d t  ln N = ln N o – t or N = N o e – t

8. Units of Radioactivity  The curie (Ci): The activity of a radioactive substance is said to be one curie if it undergoes 3.7 x 10 10 disintegrations per second 1 curie = 3.7 x 10 10 disintegrations / second  The rutherford (Rd): The activity of a radioactive substance is said to be one rutherford if it undergoes 10 6 disintegrations per second 1 rutherford = 10 6 disintegrations / second  The becquerel (Bq): The activity of a radioactive substance is said to be one becquerel if it undergoes 1 disintegration per second 1 becquerel = 1 disintegration / second

9. The half-life (t ½ ) of a radioactive substance, is the time required for one half of it to decay  When N = N o / 2, t = t ½ So t ½ = 0.693 / After 5 lifetimes more than 99% of the initial particles have decayed away!

10. Packing Fraction & Nuclear Binding Energy  Mass Defect, Δm = [ Zm p + (A – Z) m n ] - M The difference between the rest mass of the nucleus and the sum of the masses of the nucleons composing a nucleus is known as mass defect  Mass defect per nucleon is called Packing Fraction  Binding Energy, B.E = Δ m c 2 It is the energy required to break up a nucleus into its constituent parts and place them at an infinite distance from one another

11. Sources of Radioactivity  Primordial - from before the creation of the Earth radioisotopes  34 primordial radionuclides represent isotopes of 28 separate elements.-Cadmium,tellurium, neodymium and uranium isotopeselementsCadmiumtelluriumneodymiumuranium  Cosmogenic - formed as a result of cosmic ray interactions tritiumtritium, carbon-14 and phosphorus-32carbon-14phosphorus-32  Human produced - enhanced or formed due to human actions (minor amounts compared to natural)  Nuclear reactor - thallium-201 and iridium-192thallium-201iridium-192  Radionuclide generators- technetium-99m generator used in nuclear medicinetechnetium-99m generatornuclear medicine

12. Nuclear Fission Vs Fusion

13. Application & Hazards of Radioactivity Ionizing radiation can damage living tissue in the human body. It strips away electrons from atoms breaks some chemical bonds.

14. Uses of Radioactivity  Preservation of food grains and seeds  Some of the isotopes are used in the treatment of cancer  Some of the isotopes are used to study the proper functioning of internal organs.  Gamma radiations are used to sterilize the surgical instruments.  Radio phosphorous is used for studying the rate of phosphorous assimilation by the plant.  Radiocarbon Dating