1. The Immune System
(Chapter 15)

2. The Immune System
Immunity is the ability to react to antigens so that the body remains free of disease.
Disease is a state of homeostatic imbalance.
Can be due to infection or failure of the immune system.

3. Primary Lymphatic Organs
Lymphatic organs contain large numbers of lymphocytes (White Blood cells).
Primary organs are:-
Red Bone Marrow.
Site of stem cells.
Source of B lymphocytes.
Thymus Gland. Lymphocytes from bone marrow pass through to form T-lymphocytes
Produces thymic hormones (thymosin).
Aids in T lymphocyte maturation.

4. Secondary Lymphatic Organs
Secondary lymphatic organs are places where lymphocytes encounter and bind with antigens.
Spleen.
Lymph nodes.
Tonsils.
Peyer’s patches.

5. Lymphatic Organs

6. Secondary Lymphatic Organs
Spleen – upper left of abdominal cavity behind stomach. Sectioned off by connective tissue- white pulp & red pulp.
White pulp – lymphocytes
Red pulp – filters blood. Blood entering the spleen passes through red pulp before it leaves (network of sinuses)
FRAGILE

7. Secondary Lymphatic Organs
Lymph Nodes – occur along lymphatic vessels. Formed from connective tissue.
Packed full of B-lymphocytes
As lymph courses through sinuses it is filtered by macrophages, which engulf pathogens and debris.
Also present- T-lymphocytes – fight infection and attack cancer cells

8. Secondary Lymphatic Organs
Tonsils – patches of lymphatic tissue.
Perform the same function as lymph nodes
First line of defense
Peyer’s Patches – on the intestinal wall and appendix. Attack pathogens that ender the body by way of the intestinal tract.

9. Nonspecific Defenses Barriers to Entry. Mucous membranes
Line respiratory, digestive, and urinary tract.
Oil gland secretions.
Chemicals that kill or weaken bacteria on skin
Ciliated cells.
Sweep mucus & particles into throat
Bacteria
Both in stomach and vagina, prevent pathogens from gaining a foot-hold.
Acid

10. Innate Immunity
One important function of the immune system is to promote growth and repair after injury
Either via physical damage or microorganisms
The mobilization of innate immune cells to get rid of damaged cells or microorganisms is called inflammation
Small molecules called cytokines are also involved

11. Innate Immunity Inflammatory Reaction. Tissue damage causes
tissue cells and mast cells to release chemical mediators.

12. Innate Immunity Inflammatory Reaction. Histamine and kinins.
Capillaries dilate and become more permeable.
Skin reddens and becomes warm.
Proteins and fluids escape from tissue. Swelling occurs

13. Innate Immunity Inflammatory Reaction.
Proteins and fluids escape from tissue and cause swelling.
Swelling stimulates free nerve endings, causing the sensation of pain.

14. Innate Immunity Neutrophils and Monocytes migrate to site of injury.
Amoeboid – can change shape – squeeze through capillary walls and enter tissue fluid.
Neutrophils engulf pathogens –destroyed by hydrolytic enzymes when fused to a lysosome

15. Innate Immunity
Macrophages: Monocytes change into these as they leave the blood and enter the tissues.
These are phagocytic cells
Can eat many (100’s) of pathogens and survive.
Eat old blood cells and bits of dead tissue
Stimulate the immune response.
Increase production of white blood cells in bone marrow

16. Innate Immunity
Macrophages: Monocytes change into these as they leave the blood and enter the tissues.
Macrophages enter lymph vessels carring bacteria fragments to lymph nodes
This starts a specific immune response

18. Protective protein system
Known as Complement proteins
Are activated when pathogens enter the body.
Complement certain immune responses.

19. Protective protein system
Attract phagocytes.
Form holes in bacteria.
Interferon binds to receptors of non-infected cells causing them to prepare for possible attack

20. Specific immunity
Antigen--shape on cell, allows recognition of self and detection of foreign cells.
Antibody--protein that recognizes and binds antigens.
Specific defenses respond to antigens.
Lymphocytes recognize an antigen due to antigen receptors whose shape allows them to combine with a specific antigen.
Immunity is primarily the result of the action of B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes.

21. White blood cells Granular Leukocytes
Neutrophils: Most abundant. Have multilobed nucleus.
They are the first to respond to infection, and engulf pathogens during phagocytosis.
Eosinophils: Have bilobed nucleus
Known to increase in number in the event of parasitic worm infection and during allergic reaction.
Basophils: U-shaped or lobed nucleus.
In connective tissues release histamines along with Mast Cells

22. White Blood Cells Agranular Leukocyles
Monocyles: Largest of the white blood cells.
Differentiate into even larger Macrophages
Phagocytize pathogens, old cells and debris
Stimulate production of other white blood cells
Lymphocytes: Two types:
T-lymphocytes – Destroy any cell with foreign antigens
B-lymphocytes – Produce antibodies that combine with antigens
Target pathogens for destruction

23. Natural Killer Cells
Natural killer cells kill virus-infected cells and tumor cells by cell-to-cell contact.
Large, granular lymphocytes.

24. T Cells Provide cell-mediated immunity.
Produced in bone marrow, mature in thymus.
Antigen must be presented in groove of HLA molecule.
Cytotoxic T cells destroy non-self protein-bearing cells.
Helper T cells secrete cytokines that control the immune response.

25. B Cells Provide antibody-mediated immunity against bacteria.
Produced and mature in bone marrow.
Reside in spleen and lymph nodes.
Circulate in blood and lymph.
Directly recognize antigen and then undergo clonal selection.
Clonal expansion produces antibody-secreting plasma cells and memory B cells.

26. Clonal selection Theory
The antigen selects which lymphocyte will undergo clonal expansion and produce more lymphocytes with the same type of antigen receptor.
Some become memory cells – long term immunity to the same infection.
B-cells become plasma cells – fight infection
Apoptosis – when danger of infection is over, all plasma cells undergo programmed cell death

27. Specific Defenses
Antibodies are proteins shaped like an antigen receptor and capable of combining with, and neutralizing, a specific antigen.

28. Antibodies Classes. IgG - Enhances phagocytosis.
IgM - Activates complement proteins.
IgA - Prevents attachment of pathogens.
IgD - Antigen receptors on virgin B cells.
IgE - Immediate allergic response.

29. Induced Immunity Active Immunity.
Immunization involves use of vaccines.
Contain an antigen to which the immune system responds.
Primary response. Secondary (booster) response.
Dependent upon the presence of memory B and T cells capable of responding to lower antigen doses.

30. Induced Immunity Passive immunity
occurs when an individual is given prepared antibodies.
Temporary.
No memory cells.
Primary and secondary injections

31. Issue - Allergies
Occurs when your immune system reacts atypically to some antigens to which the host does not need protection.
Pollen, dust mites, cats, a hard days work!
Called Allergens
The atypical response produces a special antibody
IgE
A form of innate immunity

32. Allergies IgE binds to mast cells.
When a person later encounters the same allergen, the allergen binds to the IgE on the mast cell
This triggers the explosive release of histamine
Capillaries dilate and become more permeable.
Skin reddens and becomes warm. Proteins and fluids escape from tissue. Swelling occurs

34. Allergies
The large amounts of histamines released in an allergic reaction cause strong symptoms
Runny eyes, sneezing, or shortness of breath
Depends upon the tissue in which the mast cells were triggered

35. Allergies
As allergy symptoms are caused by histamines, taking antihistamines stops the build up of histamines in the cells of blood vessels.
However, antihistamines do not stop the immune response or the release of histamines in mast cells
Other allergies are mediated by T-cells
Latex, poison ivy, dyes or chemicals in cosmetics or clothing
Antihistamines do not help in these allergic reactions

36. Allergies
As each allergy is an antigen-specific immune response it shows memory and a greater response on the next exposure
This is why allergies get worse over time
Thousands of different substances can produce allergies in people – each triggered by a specific antigen-specific response
Why people are usually bothered by only a few
Appears to be inherited
Remember human genetics and meiosis!!!!

37. The End.
Any Questions?