1. 1 CH 11: Looking at the Past and Across Cultures

2. 2 WHAT IS HISTORICAL- COMPARATIVE RESEARCH (HCR)? HCR places historical time and/or cross- cultural variation at the center of analysis HCR places historical time and/or cross- cultural variation at the center of analysis HCR looks at how a specific mix of diverse factors come together in time and place to produce a specific outcome (e.g., war, social movement, migration, etc.) HCR looks at how a specific mix of diverse factors come together in time and place to produce a specific outcome (e.g., war, social movement, migration, etc.) HCR makes “big” comparisons, of units like nation-states, societies, cultures, to see how they are similar and different HCR makes “big” comparisons, of units like nation-states, societies, cultures, to see how they are similar and different HCR examines social processes across several cultural or historical settings HCR examines social processes across several cultural or historical settings

3. 3 What research questions are suitable for HCR? “Big questions” about macro-level change over time (across historical eras) or in two or more sociocultural contexts “Big questions” about macro-level change over time (across historical eras) or in two or more sociocultural contexts When the goal is to understand/explain macro- level events When the goal is to understand/explain macro- level events e.g., a terrorist attack, a nation going to war, sources of racism, large-scale immigration, religious conflict, urban decay, etc.e.g., a terrorist attack, a nation going to war, sources of racism, large-scale immigration, religious conflict, urban decay, etc.  Do people who immigrate form attachments to their new country or stay connected across international borders?  What about the questions that drive the article, “Nannies, Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy”?

4. 4 CONCEPTUALIZATION Write down all the concepts you can recall from “Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy” Write down all the concepts you can recall from “Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy” Sort concepts into groups, classify themSort concepts into groups, classify them

5. 5 Concepts can be grouped in various ways, for example: social structures social structures social processes social processes social relations social relations social actors social actors activities activities events events social contexts/locations/populations social contexts/locations/populations

6. 6 Concepts can also be arranged on a continuum, from specific to universal universal concepts apply across social settings, historical time, and culture universal concepts apply across social settings, historical time, and culture specific concepts apply only to particular social settings, historical eras, or cultures specific concepts apply only to particular social settings, historical eras, or cultures Many concepts fall between these extremes Many concepts fall between these extremes (Neumann, pp. 299-300)

7. 7 H-C research uses a blend of research techniques traditional history, field research, interviews, content analysis, existing statistics, etc. traditional history, field research, interviews, content analysis, existing statistics, etc.

8. 8 “Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy” Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russell Hochschild, in Rothenberg, Ed., Beyond Borders: Thinking Critically About Global Issues, 2006.

9. 9 With globalization, women are on the move as never before There’s growing migration of millions of women from poor countries to rich ones, where they serve as nannies, maids and sex workers There’s growing migration of millions of women from poor countries to rich ones, where they serve as nannies, maids and sex workers Lacking help from male partners, many women have succeeded in “male world” careers only by turning over care of children, elderly parents, and homes to women from the Third World Lacking help from male partners, many women have succeeded in “male world” careers only by turning over care of children, elderly parents, and homes to women from the Third World

10. 10 The female underside of globalization Millions of women from poor countries in the south migrate to do the “women’s work” of the north – work that affluent women are no longer able or willing to do Millions of women from poor countries in the south migrate to do the “women’s work” of the north – work that affluent women are no longer able or willing to do Migrant women often leave their own children back home, in the care of grandmothers, sisters, and sisters- in-law Migrant women often leave their own children back home, in the care of grandmothers, sisters, and sisters- in-law

11. 11 The pattern of female migration reflects a “worldwide gender revolution” In both rich and poor countries, fewer families can rely solely on a male breadwinner In both rich and poor countries, fewer families can rely solely on a male breadwinner In the U.S., the earning power of most men has declined since 1970, and many women have gone to work to make up the difference In the U.S., the earning power of most men has declined since 1970, and many women have gone to work to make up the difference  So who will take care of the children, the sick, the elderly?

12. 12 Hypothesis: The lifestyles of the First World are made possible by a global transfer of the services associated with a wife’s traditional role—child care, homemaking, and sex—from poor countries to rich ones.

13. 13 To generalize and perhaps oversimplify: In an earlier phase of imperialism, northern countries extracted natural resources and agricultural products from lands they colonized In an earlier phase of imperialism, northern countries extracted natural resources and agricultural products from lands they colonized Today, while still relying on Third World countries for agricultural and industrial labor, the wealthy countries also seek to extract something harder to measure and quantify, that can look very much like love. Today, while still relying on Third World countries for agricultural and industrial labor, the wealthy countries also seek to extract something harder to measure and quantify, that can look very much like love.

14. 14 Historical precedents for the globalization of traditional female services In the ancient Middle East, the women of populations defeated in war were routinely enslaved and to serve as household workers and concubines for the victors In the ancient Middle East, the women of populations defeated in war were routinely enslaved and to serve as household workers and concubines for the victors Among the Africans brought to North America as slaves in the 16 th – 19 th centuries, about 1/3 were women & children, and many became concubines and domestic servants Among the Africans brought to North America as slaves in the 16 th – 19 th centuries, about 1/3 were women & children, and many became concubines and domestic servants 19 th century Irishwomen–and rural Englishwomen-- migrated to English towns and cities to work as domestics in homes of growing upper middle class 19 th century Irishwomen–and rural Englishwomen-- migrated to English towns and cities to work as domestics in homes of growing upper middle class

15. 15 The feminization of migration From 1950 – 1970, men predominated in labor migration to northern Europe from Turkey, Greece, and North Africa From 1950 – 1970, men predominated in labor migration to northern Europe from Turkey, Greece, and North Africa Since then, women have been replacing menSince then, women have been replacing men In 1946, women were fewer than 3% of the Algerians and Moroccans living in France; by 1990, they were more than 40%In 1946, women were fewer than 3% of the Algerians and Moroccans living in France; by 1990, they were more than 40% Overall, half of the world’s 120 million legal and illegal migrants are now believed to be women Overall, half of the world’s 120 million legal and illegal migrants are now believed to be women Patterns of international migration vary from region to region, but women migrants from a surprising # of sending countries actually outnumber men, sometimes by a wide margin (See pp. 533-534) Patterns of international migration vary from region to region, but women migrants from a surprising # of sending countries actually outnumber men, sometimes by a wide margin (See pp. 533-534)

16. 16 Composition of household workforce in US has changed with the life chances of different ethnic groups In late 19th century, Irish and German immigrants served the northern upper and middle classes, then left for factories as soon as they could In late 19th century, Irish and German immigrants served the northern upper and middle classes, then left for factories as soon as they could Black women replaced them, accounting for 60% of all domestics in the late 1940s, and dominated the field until other occupations opened up Black women replaced them, accounting for 60% of all domestics in the late 1940s, and dominated the field until other occupations opened up West coast maids were disproportionately Japanese American until that group found better options West coast maids were disproportionately Japanese American until that group found better options Today, ethnicity of workforce varies by region: Chicanas in the Southwest, Caribbeans in New York, native Hawaiians in Hawaii, whites, mostly rural, in Maine Today, ethnicity of workforce varies by region: Chicanas in the Southwest, Caribbeans in New York, native Hawaiians in Hawaii, whites, mostly rural, in Maine ( Ehreneich, “Maid to Order: The Politics of Other Women’s Work” ( Ehreneich, “Maid to Order: The Politics of Other Women’s Work” Harper's, 4/1/2000)

17. 17 The globalization of women’s work is NOT a simple synergy of needs among women Fails to account for failure of First World governments to meet the needs created by women’s entry into workforce Fails to account for failure of First World governments to meet the needs created by women’s entry into workforce The American and—to a lesser degree— European welfare state has become a “deadbeat dad”The American and—to a lesser degree— European welfare state has become a “deadbeat dad” US does not offer public child care, nor insure paid family and medical leaveUS does not offer public child care, nor insure paid family and medical leave Omits the role of men, who still do less than their “fair share” of domestic work Omits the role of men, who still do less than their “fair share” of domestic work Often leaving working women with a “second shift”Often leaving working women with a “second shift”

18. 18 Push factors not so simple either Female migrants are not the most impoverished, so absolute poverty not a push factor Female migrants are not the most impoverished, so absolute poverty not a push factor They are typically more affluent and better educated than male migrantsThey are typically more affluent and better educated than male migrants Such women are likely to be enterprising and adventurous enough to resist the social pressures to stay home and accept their lot in lifeSuch women are likely to be enterprising and adventurous enough to resist the social pressures to stay home and accept their lot in life Noneconomic factors also influence decision to migrate Noneconomic factors also influence decision to migrate To escape expectation to care for elderly family members, to give paychecks to husband or father, to defer to an abusive husbandTo escape expectation to care for elderly family members, to give paychecks to husband or father, to defer to an abusive husband A practical response to divorce or need to raise children as single motherA practical response to divorce or need to raise children as single mother Other factors may make men of poor countries less desirable as husbands (e.g., unemployment and related social problems such as alcoholism and gambling) Other factors may make men of poor countries less desirable as husbands (e.g., unemployment and related social problems such as alcoholism and gambling)

19. 19 Globalization of child care & housework brings independent women of the world together –but not as sisters & allies with common goals Instead they come together across a great divide of privilege and opportunity Instead they come together across a great divide of privilege and opportunity A global relationship has formed that in some ways mirrors the traditional relationship between the sexes A global relationship has formed that in some ways mirrors the traditional relationship between the sexes The First World takes on a role like that of the old-fashioned male in the familyThe First World takes on a role like that of the old-fashioned male in the family Poor countries take on a role like that of the traditional woman within the familyPoor countries take on a role like that of the traditional woman within the family A division of labor feminists critiqued when it was “local” has now, metaphorically speaking, gone global A division of labor feminists critiqued when it was “local” has now, metaphorically speaking, gone global

20. 20 What is Unique about HCR? 1) Builds on Limited and Indirect Evidence 2) Interprets the Meaning of Events in Context -Supracontext awareness -Coherence imposition -Capacity overestimation 3) Integrates the Micro and Macro Levels 4) Uses Specific and Transcultural, Transhistorical Concepts

21. 21 HOW TO DO A HCR RESEARCH STUDY Acquire the necessary background Acquire the necessary background Conceptualize the issue Conceptualize the issue Locate and evaluate the evidence Locate and evaluate the evidence Organize the evidence Organize the evidence Synthesize and develop concepts Synthesize and develop concepts Write the report Write the report

22. 22 RESEARCHING THE PAST Historians: See collection of historical evidence as central goal in itself See collection of historical evidence as central goal in itself Interpret data in light of other historical events Interpret data in light of other historical events Are not overly concerned about developing theory Are not overly concerned about developing theory Social researchers: See collection of historical evidence as secondary See collection of historical evidence as secondary Want to extend or build theory or apply social concepts to new situations Want to extend or build theory or apply social concepts to new situations Use historical evidence as a means to an end – to explain/understand social relations Use historical evidence as a means to an end – to explain/understand social relations Historians and social researchers study the past in different ways

23. 23 Types of Historical Evidence Primary sources Primary sources Running records Running records Recollections Recollections Secondary sources Secondary sources

24. 24 Primary sources and their limitations primary sources: sources created in the past and that survived to the present primary sources: sources created in the past and that survived to the present presentism: the fallacy of looking at past events from the point of view of today and failing to adjust for a very different contextpresentism: the fallacy of looking at past events from the point of view of today and failing to adjust for a very different context : as applied in comparative research, the fallacy of looking at the behaviors, customs, and practices of people in other cultures narrowly from your culture’s point of viewethnocentrism: as applied in comparative research, the fallacy of looking at the behaviors, customs, and practices of people in other cultures narrowly from your culture’s point of view

25. 25 Evaluating primary sources After locating documents, you must evaluate them with external and internal criticism After locating documents, you must evaluate them with external and internal criticism external criticism: evaluating the authenticity of primary source materialsexternal criticism: evaluating the authenticity of primary source materials internal criticism: evaluating the credibility of information in primary source materialsinternal criticism: evaluating the credibility of information in primary source materials

26. 26 Running records and their limitations Running records: ongoing files or statistical documents that an organization such as a school, business, hospital, or government agency maintains over time Running records: ongoing files or statistical documents that an organization such as a school, business, hospital, or government agency maintains over time Limitations: Limitations: 1) organizations do not always maintain them 2) organizations do not record information consistently over time

27. 27 Recollections and their limitations recollections: a person’s words or writings about past experiences created by the person some time after the experiences took place recollections: a person’s words or writings about past experiences created by the person some time after the experiences took place oral history: interviews with a person about his or her life and experiences in the pastoral history: interviews with a person about his or her life and experiences in the past Limitation: because memory is imperfect, recollections and oral histories can be distorted pictures of the past in ways primary sources are not Limitation: because memory is imperfect, recollections and oral histories can be distorted pictures of the past in ways primary sources are not

28. 28 Secondary sources and their limitations secondary sources: specific studies conducted by specialist historians who may have spent many years studying a narrow topic. Other researchers use these secondary data as sources. secondary sources: specific studies conducted by specialist historians who may have spent many years studying a narrow topic. Other researchers use these secondary data as sources. Limitations: Limitations: Holes or gaps in the historical record and few studies on your topicHoles or gaps in the historical record and few studies on your topic Inaccurate historical accountsInaccurate historical accounts Biased interpretationsBiased interpretations