1. Motivation Across Cultures
chapter twelve
Motivation Across Cultures
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2. Chapter 12 Outline (1) The nature of motivation
Two assumptions about motivation
Content theories of motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Achievement Motivation Theory

3. Chapter 12 Outline (2) Process theories of motivation Equity theory
Goal-setting theory
Expectancy theory
Motivation applied
Work centrality
Rewarding employees

4. The Nature of Motivation
Motivation is a psychological process through which unsatisfied wants or needs lead to drives that are aimed at goals or incentives.

5. Two Assumptions about Motivation
The Universalist Assumption:
Motivation process is universal; all people are motivated to pursue goals they value
Process is universal
Culture influences specific content and goals pursued
Motivation differs across cultures

6. Two Assumptions about Motivation (2)
The Assumption of Content and Process
Content Theories of Motivation:
Theories that explain work motivation in terms of what arouses, energizes, or initiates employee behavior.
Process Theories of Motivation:
Theories that explain work motivation by how employee behavior is initiated, redirected, and halted

7. Maslow’s Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory
Maslow’s Theory
Maslow’s Theory and international managers
Adapting Maslow’s Theory to East Asia
Maslow’s Theory and job categories

8. Maslow’s Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory
Abraham Maslow - Every person has five basic needs
Physiological needs - food, clothing, shelter, and other basic physical needs
Safety needs - desire for security, stability, and the absence of pain
Social needs - need to interact and affiliate with others and to feel wanted by others
Esteem needs - needs for power and status
Self-actualization needs – the desire to reach one’s full potential by becoming everything one is capable of becoming

9. Maslow’s Theory (2)
Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs become motivators
A need that is satisfied no longer motivates

10. Maslow's Theory & International Managers
Each country or geographic region appears to have its own need-satisfaction profile
Managers in U.S., U.K., Nordic Europe and Latin America report that autonomy and self-actualization are the most important and least satisfied needs.
Some East Asian managers report even more difficulty in satisfying these needs
Study was conducted by Haire and others.

11. Adapting Maslow’s Theory to East Asia
Nevis suggested that the hierarchy of needs is western-oriented and focuses on the individual. Asian societies focus on group concerns.
Nevis suggested changing hierarchy for China:
Belonging (social)
Physiological
Safety
Self-actualization (in the service of society)
There is no esteem need in Nevis' hierarchy.

12. Maslow's Theory and Job Categories
Hofstede noted that the Haire study was limited to managers
Every culture has different sub-cultures
Looked at job categories as sub-cultures
Analyzed motivation by job categories
Divided Maslow's hierarchy into 3 categories
Low: physiological and safety needs
Middle: social needs
High: esteem and actualization needs

13. Highest-ranked Needs by Job Category
Unskilled workers: low-level needs
Technicians: mix of needs from different categories – at least one high-order need and one low-level need
Clerical workers: middle (social) needs
Managers: high and mid-level needs
Professionals: high-order needs

14. Goals Ranked by Job Category

15. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
A theory that identifies two sets of factors that influence job satisfaction:
Motivators: Job content factors such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the work itself. Only when motivators are present will there be satisfaction.
Hygiene Factors: Job-context factors such as salary, interpersonal relations, technical supervision, working conditions, and company policies and administration. If hygiene factors aren’t taken care of there will be dissatisfaction.

16. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory (2)

17. Herzberg and Maslow

18. Herzberg’s Theory in an International Context
Several cross-cultural studies show that motivators are more important than satisfiers in motivating all levels of employees
Motivators and satisfiers are not always the same in different cultures
Managers should focus on understanding the motivators and satisfiers in the country where they are working

19. Achievement Motivation Theory
Theory holds that individuals can have a need to get ahead, to attain success and to reach objectives
People who have strong a achievement need:
Want personal responsibility for solving problems
Tend to be moderate risk takers
Want concrete feedback about their performance
Often do not get along well with other people or understand others’ concerns.

20. How to Encourage Achievement Motivation
Train people to
Obtain feedback on performance
Use the feedback to make efforts in areas where they are likely to succeed
Emulate people who have been successful achievers
Develop an internal desire for success and challenges
Daydream in positive terms by picturing themselves as being successful in the pursuit of important objectives

21. Country Comparisons

22. Achievement Motivation Theory in an International Context
Countries with high masculinity and low uncertainty avoidance support achievement motivation theory.
These are primarily English-speaking countries and some of their former colonies or territories (India, Singapore, Hong Kong, South Africa, the Philippines)
It is probably wise to use achievement motivation theory in those countries.

23. Motivating People when Achievement Motivation is not Effective
Low masculinity and low uncertainty avoidance: use quality of life as a motivator
Low masculinity and high uncertainty avoidance: use quality of life and security as motivators
High masculinity and high uncertainty avoidance: reward success and provide security
In collectivist cultures, use group rewards

24. Process Theories of Motivation
Equity theory
Goal-setting theory
Expectancy theory

25. Equity Theory
Focuses on how motivation is affected by people’s perception of how fairly they are being treated
When people believe that they are being treated equitably, it will have a positive effect on their job satisfaction
If they believe they are not being treated fairly (especially in relation to others)
They will be dissatisfied, which will have a negative effect on their job performance.
They will strive to restore equity.

26. Equity Theory (2)
Focuses on how motivation is affected by people’s perception of how fairly they are being treated
Research in western work groups supports the theory
Limitations of the theory
Perceptions of equity are not the same everywhere.
In collectivist cultures, people may accept unequal treatment to preserve group harmony.
Examples: Most countries in the Middle East and Asia
In some cultures, women may accept unequal treatment (example: lower wages than men)

27. Goal-Setting Theory
People perform best when they have challenging goals and have a role in setting those goals (participative goal setting).
In the United States and in Israel, participative goal setting with individuals increases both motivation and performance
International research on goal setting theories
Employees in Norway and the United Kingdom prefer to have management work with union officials in setting work goals
Participative goal setting with individuals may not work well in collectivist cultures

28. Expectancy Theory
Motivation is influenced by a person’s belief that effort will lead to performance, performance will lead to specific outcomes, and that these outcomes are valued by the individual
Theory is likely to work best in cultures where employees believe that they have control over what happens to them
Expectancy theory has been used successfully in Japan.

29. Summary of Motivation Theories
Content theories
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Herzberg’s two-factor theory
Achievement motivation theory
Process theories
Equity theory
Goal-setting theory
Expectancy theory