1. Bone Structure and Development Readings: –Frankel and Nordin, Chapter 2 –Bailey, D.A. (1996) Growth, Physical Activity, and Bone Mineral Acquisition. Ex & Sp Sci Rev, 24: 233- 266. –Beck, B.R. and Snow, C.M. (2003) Bone health across the lifespan- Exercise our options. Ex & Sp Sci Rev, 31:3 pp 117-122. Structure and architecture Development and growth –Process – continuous remodeling –Factors affecting bone density and strength Mechanical properties Osteoporosis

2. Bone Gross Structure, Architecture and Development

3. Long Bone Structure

4. Bone Micro- Structure, cont’d Projections of osteocytes are thought to be cite of strain sensing, which stimulates bone to form

6. Bone Composition & Structure Material Constituents: –Calcium carbonate and Calcium phosphate 60-70% bone weight Adds stiffness Primary determinant for compressive strength. –Collagen Adds flexibility Contributes to tensile strength –Material Constituents –Water 25-30% bone weight Contributes to bone strength Provides transportation for nutrients and wastes.

7. Bone Composition & Structure Structural Organization –Bone mineralization ratio specific to bone –Two categories of porous bone: Cortical bone(70-95% mineral content) Trabecular bone (10-70% mineral content) –More porous bones have: Less calcium phosphate More calcium carbonate Greater proportion of non-mineralized tissue

8. Bone Composition & Structure Cortical Bone –Low porosity –5-30% bone volume is non- mineralized tissue –Withstand greater stress but less strain before fracturing

9. Bone Composition & Structure Trabecular Bone –High porosity –30 - >90% bone volume is non-mineralized tissue –Trabeculae filled with marrow and fat –Withstand more strain (but less stress) before fracturing

10. Bone Composition & Structure Both cortical and trabecular bone are anisotropic – stress/strain response is directional Bone function determines structure (Wolff’s law) Strongest at resisting compressive stress Weakest at resisting shear stress

11. Bone Growth & Development Longitudinal Growth –at epiphyses or epiphyseal plates –Stops at 18 yrs of age (approx.) can be seen up to 25 yrs of age Circumferential Growth –Diameter increases throughout lifespan –Most rapid growth before adulthood Periosteum build-up in concentric layers Endosteal growth Internal remodeling

12. Bone Growth & Development Osteoblasts Osteoclasts Adult Bone Development –Balance between oseoblast and osetoclast activity –Increase in age yields progressive decrease in collagen and increase in bone brittleness. Greater in women

13. lamella

15. Bone Growth & Development Women –Peak bone mineral content: 25-28 yrs. –0.5%-1.0% loss per year following age 50 or menopause –6.5% loss per year post-menopause for first 5-8 years. Youth – bones are vulnerable during peak growing years –Bone mineral density (BMD) is least during peak growing years –Growth plates are thickest during peak growing years

16. Bone Growth & Development Aging –Bone density loss as soon as early 20’s –Decrease in mechanical properties and general toughness of bone –Increasing loss of bone substance –Increasing porosity –Disconnection and disintegration of trabeculae leads to weakness

17. Bone loading modes: Compression – pushing together Tension – pulling apart Torsion – twisting Shear – cutting across

18. Cutting across

19. Load- deformation relationship: Stress-strain curve:

20. Repetitive vs. Acute Loads Repetitive loading Acute loading Macrotrauma Microtrauma

21. I: bone vs glass and metal II: Anisotropic behavior of bone

22. Comparison of tendon and ligament

25. Bone Response to Stress Wolf’s Law –Indicates that bone strength increases and decreases as the functional forces on the bone increase and decrease. Bone Modeling and Remodeling –Mechanical loading causes strain –Bone Modeling If Strain > modeling threshold, then bone modeling occurs. –“conservation mode”: no change in bone mass –“disuse mode”: net loss of bone mass Osteocytes – projections sense strain, begins remodeling process

26. Bone Response to Stress Bone mineral density generally parallels body weight –Body weight provides most constant mechanical stress –Determined by stresses that produce strain on skeleton –Think: weight gain or loss and its effect on bone density

27. Bone Hypertrophy An increase in bone mass due to predominance of osteoblast activity. Seen in response to regular physical activity –Ex: tennis players have muscular and bone hypertrophy in playing arm. The greater the habitual load, the more mineralization of the bone. –Also relates to amount of impact of activity/sport

28. Bone Atrophy A decrease in bone mass resulting form a predominance of osteoclast activity –Accomplished via remodeling –Decreases in: Bone calcium Bone weight and strength Seen in bed-ridden patients, sedentary elderly, and astronauts

29. Osteoporosis Website on osteporosis: http://www.nof.org National Osteoporosis Foundation A disorder involving decreased bone mass and strength with one or more resulting fractures. Found in elderly –Mostly in postmenopausal and elderly women –Causes more than 1/2 of fractures in women, and 1/3 in men. Begins as osteopenia

30. Osteoporosis Type I Osteoporosis = Post-menopausal Osteoporosis –Affects about 40% of women over 50 –Gender differences Men reach higher peak bone mass and strength in young adulthood Type II Osteoporosis = Age-Associated Osteoporosis –Affects most women and men over 70

31. Osteoporosis Symptoms: –Painful, deforming and debilitating crush fractures of vertebrae Usually of lumbar vertebrae from weight bearing activity, which leads to height loss –Estimated 26% of women over 50 suffer from these fractures

32. Osteoporosis Men have an increase in vertebral diameter with aging –Reduces compressive stress during weight bearing activities –Structural strength not reduced –Not known why same compensatory changes do not occur in women

33. Female Athlete Triad 1) Eating Disorders affect 1-10% of all adolescent and college-age women. –Displayed in 62% female athletes Mostly in endurance or appearance-related sports 2) Amenorrhea is the cessation of the menses. 3) Osteoporosis is the decrease in bone mass and strength.

34. Position Statement of ACSM on Osteoporosis Weightbearing physical activity is essential for developing and maintaining a healthy skeleton Strength exercises may also be beneficial, particularly for non-weightbearing bones An increase in physical activity for sedentary women can prevent further inactivity-related bone loss and can even improve bone mass Exercise is not an adequate substitute for postmenopausal hormone replacement Ex programs for older women should include activities for improving strength, flexibility, and coordination, to lessen the likelihood of falls

35. Osteoporosis Treatment Hormone replacement therapy Estrogen deficiency damages bone Increased dietary calcium Lifestyle factors affect bone mineralization Risk factors for osteoporosis: –Smoking, alcohol –Inactivity –Low body fat –White, female, postmenopausal

36. Osteoporosis Treatment Future use of pharmacologic agents –May stimulate bone formation –Low doses of growth factors to stimulate osteoblast recruitment and promote bone formation. Best Bet: –Engaging in regular physical activity involving weight bearing and resistive exercise –Avoiding the lifestyle (risk) factors that negatively affect bone mass.

37. Common Bone Injuries Bone stronger in resisting compression than tension, so the side loaded with tension will fracture first. –Acute compression fractures (in absence of osteoporosis) is rare Stress Fractures occur when there is no time for repair process (osteoblast activity) –Begin as small disruption in continuity of outer layers of cortical bone.

38. Epiphyseal Injuries Include injuries to: Cartilaginous epiphyseal plate Articular cartilage Apophysis Acute and repetitive loading can injure growth plate –Leads to premature closing of epiphyseal junction and termination of bone growth.

39. Epiphyseal Injuries Osteochondrosis –Disruption of blood supply to epiphyses –Associated with tissue necrosis and potential deformation of the epiphyses. Apophysitis –Osteochondrosis of the apophysis –Associated with traumatic avulsions.

40. Summary Bone is an important living tissue that is continuously being remodeled. Bone Strength and Resistance to fracture depend on its material composition and organizational structure. Bones continue to change in density. Osteoporosis is extremely prevalent among the elderly.