1. Research Methods: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science

2. The Need for Psychology Science

3. Do Now Fact or Falsehood
Before attempting the quiz, predict how many you will get correct.
Complete Handouts 2-2 / 2-5

4. The Need for Psychological Science
Intuition & Common Sense
Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature.
A bullet is fired from a gun across an open field.
A bullet is dropped from a person’s hand.
Which hits the ground first?
Intuition and common sense may aid queries, but they are not free of error.
Psychology 7e in Modules

5. Errors of Common Sense & Limits of Intuition
Try this!
Fold a piece of paper (0.1 mm thick) 100 times. How thick will it be?
800,000,000,000,000 times the distance between the sun and the earth.
Personal interviewers may rely too much on their “gut feelings” when meeting with job applicants.
Psychology 7e in Modules

6. Did We Know It All Along? Hindsight Bias
“I knew it all along”
“Out of sight, out of mind”
“Absence makes the heart grow fonder”
Examples:
Jurors told to ignore information by the judge
Vick is obviously a better quarterback than Kolb
Handout 2-2

7. Overconfidence
Sometimes we think we know more than we actually know.
Overconfidence, together with hindsight bias, can lead to overestimate our intuition
Do Now Quiz
Handout 2-3
Anagram
How long do you think it would take to unscramble these anagrams?
WREAT
WATER
ETYRN
ENTRY
OBJECTIVE 2| Describe how overconfidence contaminates our everyday judgments.
People said it would take about 10 seconds, yet on average they took about 3 minutes (Goranson 1978).
GRABE
BARGE
Psychology 7e in Modules

8. Psychological Science
How can we differentiate between uniformed opinions and examined conclusions?
The science of psychology helps make these examined conclusions, which leads to our understanding of how people feel, think, and act as they do!

9. The Scientific Attitude
Three main components:
Curiosity (passion for exploration)
Skepticism (doubting and questioning competing ideas)
Open-Minded Humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong).

10. Critical Thinking Critical Thinking “Smart thinking” Asks:
does not accept arguments and conclusions blindly.
Asks:
What’s Your Evidence?
Do Your Conclusions Match Your Evidence?

11. How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions?

12. The Scientific Method

13. The Scientific Method
explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events.

14. A testable prediction of a relationship among variables
The Scientific Method
explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events.
A testable prediction of a relationship among variables

15. A testable prediction of a relationship among variables
The Scientific Method
explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events.
A testable prediction of a relationship among variables

16. Making Research Scientific
Must be Replicable
- Why?
Must be Falsifiable
- Hypothesis stated in such a way that it can be rejected (Loch Ness Monster example)
Must be Precise
- Use of Operational Definitions
Must be Parsimonious
- Apply simplest explanation to set of observations (i.e. falling asleep in math class)

17. Describing Psychological Research
General Terms used:
Variables: the events, characteristics, behaviors, or conditions that researchers measure & study
Subject (or participant): an individual or animal a researcher studies
Sample: collection of subjects researchers study (bc cannot study entire population)
Population: collection of people or animals from which researchers draw a sample
Study sample & generalize to population

18. Operational Definitions
Statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables
Defines what the researcher will be observing and manipulating
Examples
human intelligence operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures (IQ Score)
Academic achievement operationally defined as grade point average
Operational Definitions MUST be:
Measurable
Manageable

19. Operational Definitions
With a partner, attempt to operationally define the following:
Happiness
Aggression
Popularity
Good Behavior

20. Description Case Study Study 1 person in depth
OBJECTIVE 5| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of case studies in studying behavior and mental processes.
Psychology 7e in Modules

21. Case Study Advantages Disadvantages Generate hypotheses
Suggest further study
Data other methods cannot
Rare phenomena – damage to specific brain areas
Illustrative anecdotes
Concrete examples of concepts & principles
Can give incomplete or unrepresentative info
Relies on self-report data
can be misleading
Subjective
Usually only 1 investigator
may lead to biased results
Does NOT explain behavior
NO Cause & Effect

22. Handout 2-5 & Discuss examples
Survey
How long is the Mississippi River? What is the population of Argentina?
Form A Form B Form A Form B
Determining many people’s attitudes, opinions or behaviors (Study many people superficially)
- usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people.
Handout 2-5 & Discuss examples
Effects of:
Wording
Range of Responses
Order
OBJECTIVE 6| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of surveys in studying behavior and mental processes, and explain the importance of wording effects and random sampling.
Psychology 7e in Modules

23. Survey President Obama is a good president. False Consensus Effect
Yes or No?
Estimate the % of people in class that you think agree with you
False Consensus Effect
A tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

24. Representative Sample In class Sample – m/f? hair color?
Survey
Random Sampling
If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid.
Representative Sample
(Generalizability)
In class Sample – m/f? hair color?
Coin Flip
Table of Random #s
Potential Problems in Polls?
The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.

25. Survey Advantages Disadvantages Self-Report Data Generate hypotheses
Can be misleading
Saying vs. Doing – behavior can’t be observed directly
Subjective
May lead to Bias
Wording? Sample?
Does NOT explain behavior
NO Cause & Effect conclusions
Generate hypotheses
Information about many people at once
Cheap & relatively easy

26. Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording the behavior of animals in the wild and recording self-seating patterns in a multiracial school lunch room constitute naturalistic observation.
OBJECTIVE 7| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation in studying behavior and mental processes.
Psychology 7e in Modules

27. Naturalistic Observation
Advantages
Disadvantages
Generating hypotheses
Info on behavior in natural environment
Sometimes biased results
Difficult to do unobtrusively
Does NOT explain behavior
NO Cause & Effect conclusions
Does not control for all factors that may influence behavior

28. Correlation Correlation Does NOT mean Causation
Can be used to predict
How is information obtained
Surveys
Quasi-experiments
Examples
GPA related to Test Scores?
People w/ store credit cards spend more on clothes?
Independent Variables that aren’t Independent (can’t be manipulated)
i.e. gender, age, height, weight
More likely to be used in correlational research

29. Correlation Correlation Coefficient How well does A predict B
Questions to Ask:
Is it positive or negative? (+ / – )
NOT good or bad – Negative ≠ Weak
What is the strength? (-1.0 to +1.0)
0 = no relationship
Scatterplot

30. Correlation

31. Correlation

32. Correlation

33. Correlation

34. Correlation

35. Correlation

36. Correlation

37. Correlation

38. Correlation

39. Correlation Correlation and Causation
Correlation helps predict
Does not imply cause and effect
Does not imply directionality

40. Correlation Directionality
Correlation Coefficients
Do not indicate directionality, just the existence of relationship
A to B or B to A
Examples
Eye Movement & Reading Ability
Poor Readers have more erratic patterns
Cereal Eaters
Frosted Flakes – Cancer rate ½ non cereal eaters
Oatmeal – Cancer rate 4x non-oatmeal eaters
Routine Physicals in past 3 years
2x as likely to report high blood pressure & cholesterol
TV & Childhood Obesity
Degree of obesity rises 2% for every hour of TV watched

45. Correlation Illusory Correlations
Perceived non-existent correlation
A random coincidence

46. Correlation Perceiving Order in Random Events
Comes from our need to make sense out of the world
Which is most likely sequence?
Coin flip Poker hand
Gambler’s Fallacy #1 #2

47. Random Sampling
Blue
Brown
Green
Orange
Red
Yellow
Observed f
Predicted %
(personal data)
(Pooled Data)
% According to Mars, Inc.
On a separate sheet of paper, set up the above Distribution Data Chart
Count the # of each color of M&Ms in your personal “intact random sample” and convert numbers to %
Attempt to predict the % of each color for all M&Ms (population)

48. Experimental Design
Task – Unscramble the anagrams on the paper provided as FAST as you possibly can!

49. Experimentation Experiment Can isolate cause and effect
Control of factors
Manipulates one factor(s)
“Controls” other factors

50. Experimentation Random Assignment
Assigning to groups by chance
Eliminates alternative explanations
How?
Different from random sample

51. Experimentation Random Assignment
Blind (uninformed)
Single-Blind Procedure
Double-Blind Procedure
Which would be better? Why?
Placebo Effect
Getting treatment
Dr. says it will work
More expensive pill

52. Experimentation Placebo Effect

53. Experimentation Random Assignment
Groups
Experimental Group
Receives the treatment (IV)
Control Group
Does not receive the treatment
Need for 2 Groups - comparison (Capital Punishment)
Within-subjects vs. Between- Subjects
Comparing to selves
Own control group (pre/post-test)
Which is most efficient? More resistant to individual differences?

54. Experimentation Independent and Dependent Variables
Independent Variable
Manipulated
“What do researchers hope will cause the DV in the study?”
Dependent Variable
Measured
“What is the researcher measuring or looking for in the study?”

55. Experimental Design

56. Experimental Design

57. Experimental Design

58. Experimental Design

59. Experimentation - Other Concerns
Confounding variable (aka Extraneous Variable)
Effect of random assignment on CVs?
Forms of Bias
Experimenter Bias
Expectations influence outcome (maze bright rats)
How would you control for this?
Research Participant Bias
Influenced by how they think they are supposed to behave
What does this relate to?
Generalizability – Do experimental methods & results generalize to real world?

60. Experimental Design Possible Theory: Confidence affects performance
Hypothesis: More difficult tasks will lower later performance on the same kinds of tasks
Time to Complete “Cinerama”
Hard Word List
Easy Word List
Time to Complete “Cinerama”

61. ABC NEWS – Curly or Straight?
Experimental Design
ABC NEWS – Curly or Straight?
Can you identify each of the following for the study:
Hypothesis:
Independent Variable:
Dependent Variable:
Controls?
Possible Problems with the study?
Asch Experiment

62. Ethics in Research Ethics in animal research
Reasons for using animals in research
Safeguards for animal use

63. Ethics in Research Ethics in human research Informed consent
Protect from harm and discomfort
Maintain confidentiality
Debriefing

64. Comparing Research Methods

65. Comparing Research Methods

66. Comparing Research Methods

67. Comparing Research Methods

68. The End

69. Definition Slides

70. Hindsight Bias
= the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Also known as the “I knew it all along” phenomenon.

71. Critical Thinking
= thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

72. Theory
= an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

73. Hypothesis
= a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

74. Operational Definition
= a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables.
i.e. Human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

75. Replication
= repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

76. Case Study
= an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

77. Survey
= a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

78. Population
= all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.
Note: Except for national studies, this does NOT refer to a country’s whole population.

79. Random Sample
= a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

80. Naturalistic Observation
= observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

81. Correlation
= a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

82. Correlation Coefficient
= a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1).

83. Scatterplot
= a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

84. Illusory Correlation
= the perception of a relationship where none exists.

85. Experiment
= a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

86. Random Assigment
= assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

87. Double-Blind Procedure
= an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

88. Placebo Effect
= experimental results caused by expectation alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

89. Experimental Group
= in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

90. Control Group
= in an experiment, the group that is NOT exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of treatment.

91. Independent Variable
= the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

92. Confounding Variable
= a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

93. Dependent Variable
= the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

94. Mode
= the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

95. Mean
= the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

96. Median
= the middle score in a distribution, half the scores are above it and half are below it.

97. Range
= the difference between the highest and lowest score in a distribution.

98. Standard Deviation
= a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

99. Normal Curve
= a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scored fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

100. Statistical Significance
= a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

101. Culture
= the enduring behavior, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

102. Informed Consent
= an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

103. Debriefing
= the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.