1. Anastasia Loukaitou-Sideris UCLA Department of Urban Planning
Institute of Transportation Studies
IS IT SAFE TO WALK HERE? NEIGHBORHOOD SAFETY AND SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON WALKING
Anastasia Loukaitou-Sideris
UCLA Department of Urban Planning
UCLA Institute of Transportation Studies
October 2005
Arrowhead Conference

2. Institute of Transportation Studies
Introduction
“Current levels of physical activity among Americans remain low, and we are losing ground in some areas. The good news is that people can benefit from even moderate levels of physical activity. The public health implications of this good news are vast.”
(Surgeon General’s Report on Physical Activity and Health, Department of Health and Human Services 1996).
Report’s recommendation: Adults should engage in a thirty-minute physical activity at least five days per week.

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Worrisome Facts
An estimated three-quarters of Americans do not meet the report’s standard.
One quarter of the population is obese and 61% is overweight.
Growing levels of obesity are particularly widespread among children.
A sedentary lifestyle is considered to be a primary factor in more than 200,000 deaths per year.

4. Changes in walking and biking for the journey to work trip 1960-2000
Institute of Transportation Studies
Changes in walking and biking for the journey to work trip
Commuters
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Walk
6,416,343
9.92%
5,689,819
7.40%
5,413,248
5.60%
4,488,886
3.90%
3,758,982
2.93%
Bicycle
N/A
468,348
0.48%
466,856
0.41%
488,497
0.38%

5. Purpose of the Presentation
Institute of Transportation Studies
Purpose of the Presentation
Integration of knowledge from criminology, public health, and planning to discuss:
The link between perceived risk, fear, and physical (in)activity.
How perceptions of neighborhood safety may vary because of socio-psychological, demographic, and environmental factors.
Design and policy interventions that can help individuals feel safer in public settings.

6. Conceptual Model Institute of Transportation Studies FEAR
Constrained Behavior
INACTIVITY
POOR HEALTH
MODIFIERS
Socio-psychological factors
Socio-demographic factors
Environmental factors
PERCEIVED
RISK

7. Literature Review: Link between safety and (in)activity
Institute of Transportation Studies
Literature Review: Link between safety and (in)activity
U.S. DOT survey found that half of the respondents would walk more if there were safe pathways and crime was not a consideration (US Department of transportation, 1994).
Survey of Ontarians found that perceived safety is one of the most important environmental qualities for walking (Bauman et al. 1996).
An analysis of Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System data collected from a sample of 12,767 adults in five U.S. states revealed that higher levels of perceived neighborhood safety were associated with a lower prevalence of physical inactivity (CDC, 1999)

8. Literature Review: Features important for walking
Institute of Transportation Studies
Literature Review: Features important for walking
A review of the literature found that the features emerging as important for walking across multiple studies include:
personal safety
aesthetics
presence of destinations
convenience of nearby facilities (Pikora et al. 2003) .

9. Perceived Risks for Pedestrians and Cyclists
Institute of Transportation Studies
Perceived Risks for Pedestrians and Cyclists
HUMAN NON-HUMAN (ENVIRONMENTAL)
Heavy traffic Criminals Unattended Poor roadway
Reckless drivers Dogs Infrastructure
Pedestrian Crime Injury from Injury from falls
Automobile Violence bites Pedestrian-
Crashes automobile crashes

10. Modifiers of Perceived Risk and Fear
Institute of Transportation Studies
Modifiers of Perceived Risk and Fear
Socio-psychological factors:
Prior memories and experiences of a setting; familiarity with social and physical environment; prior experience of victimization.
Social production of fear (parental admonitions, highly publicized media stories, police warnings, etc.)

11. Modifiers of Perceived Risk and Fear
Institute of Transportation Studies
Modifiers of Perceived Risk and Fear
Socio-demographic factors: Gender
Fear of crime more prominent among women.
Women less likely to walk after dark.
Surveys have shown that a majority of women anticipated being at risk in parking structures, public transportation stations, bus stops, and underground passages.
Important differentiation among women because of age, race, class, cultural and educational background, sexual orientation, and disability status.

12. Modifiers of Perceived Risk and Fear
Institute of Transportation Studies
Modifiers of Perceived Risk and Fear
Socio-demographic factors: Class
Residents of poor neighborhoods have higher levels of fear of being victimized
According to a national survey twice as many low-income (31%) as moderate income (15%) respondents identifies worry about safety in their neighborhoods as an obstacle to walking (Moore et al. 1996).
Despite the above, residents of low income neighborhoods typically walk more than residents of affluent neighborhoods for utilitarian purposes, out of necessity.

13. Modifiers of Perceived Risk and Fear
Institute of Transportation Studies
Modifiers of Perceived Risk and Fear
Socio-demographic factor: Age
Dramatic decline in walking among children because of parental
fears about crime and traffic.
Small minority of children walk or bike to school. Forty percent of parents cited traffic as a a major barrier for letting their children walk to school.
National study conducted by TRB in 2002 found that walking and biking has higher injury and fatality counts among students than those expected from their exposure rates.

14. Modifiers of Perceived Risk and Fear
Institute of Transportation Studies
Modifiers of Perceived Risk and Fear
Socio-demographic factor: Age
Many elderly are particularly afraid of the different dangers that await them when walking in public (victimization from crime, injury from traffic collision, fall or dog bite)
Children and the elderly represent the highest risk group for automobile-pedestrian collisions.

15. Modifiers of Perceived Risk and Fear
Institute of Transportation Studies
Modifiers of Perceived Risk and Fear
Socio-demographic factor: Race/Ethnicity
A national study of 1,101 respondents found that nonwhite respondents reported higher levels of perceived risk in their neighborhoods (Ferraro, 1995)
Ethnic and racial minorities are overrepresented in pedestrian deaths (Surface Transportation Policy Project, 2002).
Racial and ethnic minorities are less likely to participate in recreational physical activities (Amesty 2003).

16. Modifiers of Perceived Risk and Fear
Institute of Transportation Studies
Modifiers of Perceived Risk and Fear
Environmental Factors
Significant relationship between neighborhood incivilities
(social and physical) and perceptions of risk.
Feared places display a combination of ‘low prospect,’ ‘high
refuge,’ and ‘high boundedness’ (Day in Zelinka and Brennan, 2001).
Darkness, lack of familiarity with a setting, and presence of feared others can be cues to danger (Warr, 1990).

17. Design and Policy Interventions for Safer Neighborhoods
Institute of Transportation Studies
Design and Policy Interventions for Safer Neighborhoods
Protecting Neighborhoods from Crime
Resurgence of interest in the role of the built environment to mitigate crime
Certain features of the micro-environment affect the likelihood of crime, while other features have the potential to deter crime.
Negative environmental features include darkness, multiple escape routes, liquor stores, pawn shops, abandoned buildings, graffiti, litter, ‘broken windows.’
Defensible space features include lighting, good visibility, places to sit outdoors, direct relationship of buildings to street, good maintenance, and territorial symbols.

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Design and Policy Interventions for Protecting Neighborhoods from Crime
Fixing broken windows
Facilitating eyes on the street

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Design and Policy Interventions for Protecting Neighborhoods from Crime
Lighting the way
Eliminating bad neighbors

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Design and Policy Interventions for Protecting Neighborhoods from Crime
Creating safe territories
Protecting access routes to destinations

21. Complementary Strategies
Institute of Transportation Studies
Complementary Strategies
Policing and surveillance
Educational programs
Use of security technology
Social capital and social networks

22. Protecting Neighborhoods from Traffic
Institute of Transportation Studies
Protecting Neighborhoods from Traffic
How walkable are the streets?
Lack of attention to pedestrians has made streets less safe for walking.
Sidewalks are not mandatory in many municipal codes.
Segregated land uses in many urban and suburban areas do not encourage walking.
Typical suburban residential streets with curb-to-curb width of 38 feet are unsafe for pedestrians because they are difficult to cross.
Destinations are often to far.

23. The Effects of Traffic on Walking
Institute of Transportation Studies
The Effects of Traffic on Walking
Higher traffic volumes and speeds result in higher numbers of
pedestrian accidents.
Child pedestrian injuries occur significantly more in poor
neighborhoods with restricted access to play space and streets
with high traffic. Latino and African-American children are
disproportionately represented among all pedestrian fatalities
and injuries relative to their share of the population (Corless
and Ohland, 1999).

24. Design and Policy Interventions to Mitigate the Effects of Traffic
Institute of Transportation Studies
Design and Policy Interventions to Mitigate the Effects of Traffic
Target
Objective
Physical Planning and Design Actions
Policy Actions
Drivers
Manage/
regulate traffic
Traffic control devices
Traffic signals
Roadway signs
Crosswalks
Pavement markings
Enforcement of traffic regulations
Fees and penalties for non-complying drivers

25. Design and Policy Interventions to Mitigate the Effects of Traffic
Institute of Transportation Studies
Design and Policy Interventions to Mitigate the Effects of Traffic
Target
Objective
Physical Planning and Design Actions
Policy Actions
Drivers
Reduce vehicular traffic volume
Create infrastructure to accommodate alternative modes
sidewalks, paths, trails
bike lanes
busways
carpool lanes
Make use of private automobile more expensive through gasoline and parking prices, license fees, and other taxes.
Congestion pricing
Ban certain automobiles from central areas

26. Design and Policy Interventions to Mitigate the Effects of Traffic
Institute of Transportation Studies
Design and Policy Interventions to Mitigate the Effects of Traffic
Target
Objective
Physical Planning and Design Actions
Policy Actions
Drivers
Reduce traffic speed
Traffic calming devices:
vertical deflections
horizontal deflections
road narrowing
central islands and medians
cul-de sacs
Designation of slow speed areas:
Woonerfs
School safety zones
Home zones

27. Design and Policy Interventions to Mitigate the Effects of Traffic
Institute of Transportation Studies
Design and Policy Interventions to Mitigate the Effects of Traffic
Target
Objective
Physical Planning and Design Actions
Policy Actions
Pedestrians
Cyclists
Increase safety
Design physical infrastructure for walking and cycling (sidewalks, bike lanes, crosswalks, lighting).
Upkeep sidewalks
Eliminate sidewalk obstructions
Preferential treatment to non-motorized modes when they intersect with motorized modes
Crossing aids for school children
Escort to school programs
Enforcement of helmets
Training programs for children about safe travel, walking, and biking.

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Conclusion
The design of the built environment should not impede the propensity for walking.
Design and policy interventions aiming to enhance neighborhood safety are the necessary first steps for the encouragement of walking.
Interventions should be tailored to the needs of different subgroups, and the characteristics of the neighborhood.
It is important to evaluate if the proposed interventions are reaching the population who are most fearful of walking and/or are in danger of physical inactivity and obesity (the women, the children, the elderly, the inner city residents, and the low-income people).

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End of Presentation