1. Ottomans and Russians: 19th century zNeed for reform--political,social, and economic if they were to keep up with the West. zReforms were attempted, but ruling elited and wealthy classes viewed reform as a threat to their status.

2. Reasons for Decline in the Ottoman Empire zArmy fell behind in technology and modernization. zDiscipline of Janissary broke down. zLost control of provinces, ie--Egypt under Muhammad Ali, Greek independence

3. zTrade passing through the empire is declining zInexpensive European goods challenged local products zExports of raw materials don’t offset imports zDevelopment dependent on foreign loans zCapitulation--agreements that exempted Europeans from Ottoman law allowed Europeans economic penetration of Ottoman markets. Economic Difficulties

4. Attempts at reform zRemodeled the army (Janissary reacted violently--sultan massacred them zReorganization of government to transfer power from traditional elites zEducational reform zConstruction of roads, telegraph, postal services zLegal Reforms zTanzimat reforms

5. Reaction to reforms zCriticism of reforms zReligious conservatives zYoung Ottomans wanted individual freedom, local autonomy and political decentralization zEstablishment of representative government, but sultan suspended constitution and for 30 years ruled autocratically zContinued reforms zElites influenced by European ideas zMost active dissident from Young Turks

6. Russians zAutocratic rule of multiethnic, multilingual, multicultural empire from Poland to Pacific zSupport of Russian Orthodox chruch zPeasants make up majority of population zLoss of the Crimean war (British help Turks, feared upset of the balance of power) zIll equipped to fight the industrial states

7. Attempts at reform zEmancipation of Serfs--obstacle to economic development, 1861 zBut…unfavorable to most peasants, few political rights, poor land opportunities, taxed, most desperately poor zZemstvos--elected district assemblies, but subordinate to tsarist autocracy zlegal reform

8. Economic reforms zIndustrialism zGovernment led by finance minister, Witte zRailroad construction--trans-Siberian railway zProtective tariffs, foreign loans zBooming petroleum and steel industry zbut…poor standard of living, poor working conditions, resistance from freed serfs, no unions or strikes zGrowing business class benefited and supported the government, didn’t want to challenge the tsar

9. Repression and Revolution zPeasant revolts zIntelligentsia and anarchists zreprisals and repression by state zassassination of the tsar zRussification zpograms against Jews zuncompromising repression by Nicholas II zRusso-Japanese War zRevolution of 1905