2. Training Human Factors Psychology Dr. Steve

3. Background Four types of factors that lead to poor performance: Four types of factors that lead to poor performance: –The environment is in the way n e.g. lack of proper tools to perform the job –Employees lack skill or knowledge n this can can be caused by lack of feedback –There are no, few, or improper incentives n doing a good job could result in gaining more work –Employees are not internally motivated n e.g. certain jobs that lack pride or meaning (flipping burgers)

4. Personnel Selection Can be seen as the first approach taken to maximize the skills and knowledge needed by an employee to perform a job Can be seen as the first approach taken to maximize the skills and knowledge needed by an employee to perform a job Focus on identifying reliable means of predicting future job performance Focus on identifying reliable means of predicting future job performance Methods include: interviews, work histories, background checks, tests, references, & work samples Methods include: interviews, work histories, background checks, tests, references, & work samples

5. Personnel Selection Can be seen in terms of signal detection theory: Can be seen in terms of signal detection theory: –hit = hiring a person who will be good at the job –miss = not hiring someone who would do a good job –false alarm = hiring someone who ends up being unacceptable or doing a poor job –correct rejection = not hiring someone who, in fact, would not do a good job if they had been hired

6. Basics of Selection First a thorough job analysis is needed First a thorough job analysis is needed Identify & prioritize KSAs Identify & prioritize KSAs Find the applicants who have the KSAs or have the ability to acquire them Find the applicants who have the KSAs or have the ability to acquire them Want a measure that is highly correlated with ultimate job performance (i.e., criterion-related validity) Want a measure that is highly correlated with ultimate job performance (i.e., criterion-related validity)

7. Selection Tests and Procedures Selection errors can have serious negative consequences for the company Selection errors can have serious negative consequences for the company –cost related to high turnover –legal problems n (e.g. adverse impact) –low employee moral or resentment –supervisors having to spend too much time on documentation of problems

8. Commonly used Selection Test and Procedures Measures of Cognitive Ability Measures of Cognitive Ability –e.g. general ability, verbal ability, numerical ability, perceptual speed, memory... –used as valid predictors of job performance Measures of Physical Ability and Psychomotor Skills Measures of Physical Ability and Psychomotor Skills –e.g. static strength, dynamic strength, gross body coordination, manual dexterity, stamina... –e.g. UPS worker

9. Commonly used Selection Test and Procedures Personality Assessment Personality Assessment –clinical or personality dimensions –e.g. MMPI Work Samples Work Samples –applicants complete a sample of work necessary for successful job performance –e.g. making a basket for an NBA player Structured Interviews Structured Interviews

10. Future Trends in Human Performance Intervention Accelerating turnover of knowledge Accelerating turnover of knowledge Rapid advances in information technology Rapid advances in information technology An increasingly diverse work force An increasingly diverse work force Increasing international business competition Increasing international business competition

11. Performance Support Continuum of possible performance support mechanisms for learning how to use software Classroom Training OnlineT utorial User Guides Reference Manuals Help Line Online Help Product Affordances Far From Task Near to Task

12. Training Program Design Simplified Instructional System Design (ISD) model Phase I – Front-End Analysis Phase I – Front-End Analysis –Needs Assessment – to determine whether training is the most appropriate method n Organizational Analysis – determine where in the organization is training required, and whether training will be accepted by organization n Task Analysis – determine training objectives by examining tasks necessary to perform job n Trainee (Person) Analysis – determine KSA’s of potential trainees and who should receive training –Functional Specifications – defines the training objectives, performance requirements, and constraints

13. Phase II – Design and Development Phase II – Design and Development –Generate Design Concepts n Story-boarding, cost-benefit analysis –Formative Evaluation n Focuses on process and usability, provides feedback so that design changes can be made prior to development –Full-Scale Development n Creating the medium to present the learning curriculum Training Program Design Simplified Instructional System Design (ISD) model

14. Phase III – System Evaluation Phase III – System Evaluation –Develop Criteria – should be consistent with training objectives n Levels of Criteria (Kirkpatrick) for summative evaluation –Reaction – feedback from trainees as to whether they liked the training –Learning – test whether trainees learned the material –Behavioral – determine whether training led to measurable changes in performance on the job –Results – utility of training or how much cost savings was derived from implementing training –Design Evaluation Program –Collect/Analyze Data –Modify training based on empirical data Training Program Design Simplified Instructional System Design (ISD) model

15. Guidelines for Instructional Development* Training Validity: Instructional events that comprise the training method should be consistent with the cognitive, physical, or psychomotor processes that lead to mastery Training Validity: Instructional events that comprise the training method should be consistent with the cognitive, physical, or psychomotor processes that lead to mastery Active Learning: Learner should be induced to produce the capability Active Learning: Learner should be induced to produce the capability – e.g. practice behaviors, recall info from LTM, apply principles in doing task Feedback Delivery: All available sources of relevant feedback should be used, & should be accurate, credible, timely, informative & constructive Feedback Delivery: All available sources of relevant feedback should be used, & should be accurate, credible, timely, informative & constructive Self-efficacy: Instructional processes should enhance trainee self- efficacy and expectations that the training will be successful and lead to valued outcomes Self-efficacy: Instructional processes should enhance trainee self- efficacy and expectations that the training will be successful and lead to valued outcomes Trainee Aptitude: Training methods should be adapted to differences in trainee aptitudes and prior knowledge Trainee Aptitude: Training methods should be adapted to differences in trainee aptitudes and prior knowledge *Adapted from research by Campbell

16. Training Media Audio-Visual (AV) Material – videos, films, slide presentations, used to present info multiple times Audio-Visual (AV) Material – videos, films, slide presentations, used to present info multiple times Click for bad example of Audio Air Force Training Guide Advantages Can be captivating Can be captivating Can combine with lecture Can combine with lecture Training is consistent Training is consistent Inexpensive to deliver Inexpensive to deliver Can be dynamic Can be dynamicDisadvantages Not interactive Not interactive No practice/feedback No practice/feedback Difficult to update in some modalities (e.g., video) Difficult to update in some modalities (e.g., video) High development cost High development cost

17. Training Media Interactive Multi-Media – computer driven training system using text, graphics, video, auditory information Interactive Multi-Media – computer driven training system using text, graphics, video, auditory information –Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) / Computer-Based Training (CBT) Advantages Convenient delivery Convenient delivery Highly interactive Highly interactive Engaging/motivating Engaging/motivating Provides testing/feedback Provides testing/feedback Multimedia MultimediaDisadvantages Can be resource-intensive to develop Can be resource-intensive to develop Requires multiple skills to develop Requires multiple skills to develop Some skills not amenable to CAI/CBT Some skills not amenable to CAI/CBT Example of CAI

18. Simulation / Virtual Reality – imitation of the real environment Simulation / Virtual Reality – imitation of the real environment Training Media Advantages Realistic practice Realistic practice Replay/critique performance Replay/critique performance Interactive, engaging, dynamic, immersive Interactive, engaging, dynamic, immersive Safer than real environment Safer than real environment Event-based (trainer- controlled) Event-based (trainer- controlled)Disadvantages Very costly to develop Very costly to develop Difficult to develop Difficult to develop Costly to implement Costly to implement Limited by current technology Limited by current technology Simulator/Cyber sickness Simulator/Cyber sickness

19. Training Media and Strategy Guidelines* Simulation: effective for teaching many tasks and skills e.g., perceptual motor skills, conceptual tasks, and team functions Simulation: effective for teaching many tasks and skills e.g., perceptual motor skills, conceptual tasks, and team functions Computer-based instruction: provide capability to review and branch and include skill diagnosis and remediation Computer-based instruction: provide capability to review and branch and include skill diagnosis and remediation Sound: provides helpful cues in instructional presentations Sound: provides helpful cues in instructional presentations –these cues can be satisfied with relatively low fidelity but extremely high timely executions Induce Motivation: Instruction should provide feedback control of both stimulus and reinforcement variables Induce Motivation: Instruction should provide feedback control of both stimulus and reinforcement variables Reduce Cognitive Load: training features should limit the number of stimuli (and extraneous stimuli) presented at any one time to avoid requiring inordinate attention from students Reduce Cognitive Load: training features should limit the number of stimuli (and extraneous stimuli) presented at any one time to avoid requiring inordinate attention from students *Guidelines are a subset adapted from Salvendy’s Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics Link to decision aid for selecting training media

20. Transfer of Training Transfer of Training – how well learning in one environment, enhances performance in another. Issues of training efficiency: 1.What provides best learning in shortest time? 2.What will lead to longest retention? 3.What is most cost effective? %Transfer = control time – transfer time control time – transfer time control time X 100 = time savings control time X 100 time savings training time Training Effectiveness Ratio (TER) =

21. Negative Transfer Negative Transfer – learning in one environment interferes with performance in the other. caused when one learns different response to same or similar stimulus. caused when one learns different response to same or similar stimulus. old response competes with new response for same stimulus. old response competes with new response for same stimulus. must unlearn old response must unlearn old response ex: when switching from Lotus 1-2-3 to Excel software, the spreadsheets look the same, but require different commands for creating formulas and specifying cell ranges. ex: when switching from Lotus 1-2-3 to Excel software, the spreadsheets look the same, but require different commands for creating formulas and specifying cell ranges.

22. Guidelines for Enhancing Transfer Generalizability: Provide practice in a variety of stimulus situations so that a student may generalize their knowledge Generalizability: Provide practice in a variety of stimulus situations so that a student may generalize their knowledge Transfer Goal: Use a rote or algorithmic approach if near transfer is the goal of instruction Transfer Goal: Use a rote or algorithmic approach if near transfer is the goal of instruction Visual Demonstrations: Training which incorporates visual demonstrations provides positive transfer to real-world situations Visual Demonstrations: Training which incorporates visual demonstrations provides positive transfer to real-world situations Guided Training (training wheels): Gradually decrease the amount of cues, prompts, and guides such that none (that would not be found on the job) remain at the end of training Guided Training (training wheels): Gradually decrease the amount of cues, prompts, and guides such that none (that would not be found on the job) remain at the end of training Functional vs. Physical fidelity: functional fidelity appears to be a stronger influence in transferring knowledge from the learning environment to the operational setting Functional vs. Physical fidelity: functional fidelity appears to be a stronger influence in transferring knowledge from the learning environment to the operational setting

23. Training System Fidelity Fidelity – realism of the training device Fidelity – realism of the training device Physical Fidelity – how realistic training device appears Physical Fidelity – how realistic training device appears Functional Fidelity – how well device trains concepts Functional Fidelity – how well device trains concepts Fidelity Issues: 1. Expense – more realism, greater cost 2. Necessity – many tasks can be learned as well or better by simplifying task in training (lowered fidelity) 3. Negative transfer – if training environment is very close to real environment, then things that are different may lead to negative transfer.

24. Training Techniques Overlearning - practice above & beyond that necessary for errorless performance Overlearning - practice above & beyond that necessary for errorless performance –Increases resistance to extinction (improves retention) –Increases the ease of “re-learning” –Decreases reaction time –May lead to automaticity Performance Practice Trials Overlearning 

25. Embedded Training – controlled exercises called up and worked on by trainees operating actual equipment (in training mode) Embedded Training – controlled exercises called up and worked on by trainees operating actual equipment (in training mode) –Provides employees opportunities to practice skills in a variety of common situations to build automaticity –Allows employees to practice skills relevant to situations that might occur infrequently on the job (meltdown at nuclear power plant). n Sometimes referred to as “stimulation” because rather than simulate the equipment it injects signals (stimuli) into the actual equipment Training Techniques

26. Part-Task Training – learn individual components of task separately, then join together later (segmentation) Part-Task Training – learn individual components of task separately, then join together later (segmentation) 1.Identify task components that are NOT interdependent 2.Identify most important components 3.De-emphasize certain components Training Techniques Ejector seat training is only one part of learning to fly

27. Guided Training (training wheels) – prevents learner from making catastrophic errors Guided Training (training wheels) – prevents learner from making catastrophic errors –Avoids confusion in learning complex tasks –Don’t eliminate errors altogether (they’re learning material), but keep from making errors that impair learning Training Techniques

28. Above Real-Time Training – practice trials that are faster than would be experienced on the job Above Real-Time Training – practice trials that are faster than would be experienced on the job –Difficulty of practice assumed to make actual task seem easier. n Like swinging a weighted baseball bat in warm-ups then switching to standard bat in the game –Equivocal results in the research n Violates other principles for enhancing transfer (“train as you fight”) Training Techniques

29. Top 5 Specific Instructional Guidelines* Use Advance Organizers: At beginning of training, the material/media should clearly inform the trainee of the learning objectives Use Advance Organizers: At beginning of training, the material/media should clearly inform the trainee of the learning objectives Provide Knowledge of Results: During practice provide students with immediate knowledge of results about correct and incorrect answers Provide Knowledge of Results: During practice provide students with immediate knowledge of results about correct and incorrect answers Develop Mental Models: Emphasize distinctive features which can be remembered in the form of mental pictures instead of abstract words Develop Mental Models: Emphasize distinctive features which can be remembered in the form of mental pictures instead of abstract words –e.g. diagrams, pictures, charts, acronyms Segment Training: Break down the overall learning task into manageable steps or unit when any of the following conditions exist: Segment Training: Break down the overall learning task into manageable steps or unit when any of the following conditions exist: – lower ability students, complex material, & overall task composed of small parts Part-task / Whole-task Training: Provide learner practice on specific components of the task for: a) simple task-practice in entirety, & b) complex task-practice in parts and then in entirety Part-task / Whole-task Training: Provide learner practice on specific components of the task for: a) simple task-practice in entirety, & b) complex task-practice in parts and then in entirety *Guidelines are a subset adapted from Salvendy’s Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics

30. Human Factors Application to Athletic Training Demonstration of human factors research tools (eye tracking) for improving psychomotor performance (golf, basketball) Demonstration of human factors research tools (eye tracking) for improving psychomotor performance (golf, basketball) Click here for link to PBS program, Scientific American Frontiers