1. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Chapter Two Studying Human Sexuality

2. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Sex, Advice Columnists, and Pop Psychology The sex information/advice genre seeks to: –Inform –Entertain Often includes moral judgments Use social science and psychiatry to give authority

3. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Use and Abuse of Statistics Popular media may oversimplify or distort research –Sensationalize findings –Over generalize results of research –Report statistics that agree with widely- held preconceptions Popular media may not emphasize the importance of replication

4. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Thinking Critically about Sex Commitment to principle of Objectivity –observation of reality while excluding researchers’ feelings or beliefs Subjectivity is to be avoided –Sexuality can bring out powerful emotions and moral ambivalence

5. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Value Judgments: Limitations Do not tell us what motivates people Do not tell us how frequently people behave in a given way Do not tell us how people feel Only tell us how we ourselves feel

6. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Value Judgments vs. Objectivity Value judgments only reveal the thoughts or feelings of one person Objectivity describes reality Objective positions can be tested Cultural relativity requires that we examine appropriateness within the cultural norms where it exists

7. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Value Judgments vs. Objectivity Value judgments imply how a person ought to behave Objective statements describe how people actually behave Value judgments cannot be empirically evaluated Objective statements can be empirically evaluated

8. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Opinions, Biases, and Stereotypes Opinions are unsubstantiated beliefs or conclusions based on an individual’s thoughts Biases are personal leanings or inclinations Stereotypes are sets of overgeneralized beliefs about an individual, a group, or an idea, etc.

9. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Stereotypes Sexual stereotyping is often used to justify discrimination or social groups Women Poor people African Americans, Latino/as, Asian Americans Gay men, lesbians, bisexuals, transgender people

10. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Stereotypes Stereotypes structure our knowledge by shaping: –What we see –What we notice –What we remember –How we explain things

11. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Attitudes and Behavior Attitude: a predisposition a person has to act, think, or feel in certain ways Behavior: the way a person acts Behavior does not always predict attitude and vice versa Frequent discrepancies exist

12. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Common Fallacies: Egocentrism and Ethnocentrism Fallacy: an error in reasoning that affects our understanding of a subject –Egocentric fallacy: the belief that our own personal experience and values are generally held by others –Ethnocentric fallacy: the belief that one’s own ethnic group, nation, or culture’s values and customs are innately superior to others’

13. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Sex Research Methods Scientific Method: the method by which a hypothesis is formed from impartially gathered data and tested empirically. –Induction: drawing a general conclusion from specific facts –Seeks to describe the world rather than to evaluate or judge it

14. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Research Concerns Ethical –Concerns use of human beings as subjects of research Methodological –Concerns center on information-gathering techniques and accuracy –A representative sample of people is necessary to draw accurate conclusions

15. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Ethical Issues Informed consent –Full disclosure of purpose, risk, benefits –Agreement to participate may be withdrawn Protection from harm –Emotional distress must be avoided –Identity of subjects must be confidential

16. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Sampling Sample: a portion of a larger group of people are observed or studied Inferences are made to the larger group Good samples are: Random Representative Unbiased

17. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Limitations of Samples Restrict Generalizations Depend on volunteers or clients Takes place at universities or colleges with student volunteers Some ethnic groups are underrepresented Gay men, lesbian women, bisexual and transgendered people may not be publicly identified

18. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Clinical Research An in-depth examination of an individual or group that comes to a specialist for assistance with disorders and problems Limited by an emphasis on pathological behavior Shaped by cultural definitions of what is pathological

19. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Survey Research Questionnaires –Administered quickly –Forced choice allows many formats Interviews –Allow more information to be gathered –Allow subjects to guide topics Sexual diaries –Collect richer information –May work well with some subjects but not all

20. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Survey Research Limitations Subjects may report self behavior with bias Interviewers may collect information with a bias Subjects may be embarrassed in an interview Accuracy of subjects’ memory fades as time passes Difficult for subjects to accurately estimate factors such as how long sexual encounters last

21. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Observational Research The researcher unobtrusively observes and makes notes about people’s behavior Serious ethical issues in observing sexual behavior without subjects’ knowledge or consent Known observation generally affects behavior

22. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Participant Observation The researcher participates in the behaviors which she or he is studying Used frequently by anthropologists Is sex research controversial because it compromises objectivity?

23. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Experimental Research The systematic manipulation of variables to examine the effect on behavior Independent variables: factors that can be manipulated and changed by the experimenter Dependent variables: factors that are likely to be affected by changes in the independent variable

24. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The Sex Researchers In 19 th century, Western sexuality began to be studied from a scientific framework –“pathologies” of sex: fetishism, sadism, masturbation, homosexuality 20 th century researchers viewed sexuality more positively

25. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The Sex Researchers Belief that sexual expression is essential to an individual’s well being Desire to broaden the range of legitimate sexual activity, including homosexuality Belief that female sexuality is equal to male sexuality

26. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840-1902) Psychopathia Sexualis (1886): –A collection of the case histories of fetishists, sadists, masochists, and homosexuals –Attributed variations in Victorian sexuality to “hereditary taint,” “moral degeneracy,” and masturbation

27. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Dramatically impacted Western ideas Sexuality begins at birth with five-stage development: Oral stage (birth to 1 year) Anal stage (age 1-3) Phallic stage (age 3-5) Latency stage (age 6-puberty) Genital stage (puberty onward)

28. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Sigmund Freud: Phallic stage Oedipal Complex: Boy develops sexual desires for mother and fears father Castration anxiety: Fears his father will cut off his penis Electra complex: Girl develops sexual desire for father and fears mother Penis envy: Girls never acquire the “lost penis” and therefore fail to develop an independent character like that of boys By age 6, boys and girls resolve their complexes and identify with their same-sex parent

29. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Sigmund Freud: Impact –Freud was pioneering in commitment to science and explorations of the unconscious –Over the past generation, his influence among American sex researchers has dwindled –In the field of sex research, his work is now primarily of historical interest

30. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Havelock Ellis (1859-1939) Studies in the Psychology of Sex (1897-1910) Pointed out the relativity of sexual values Appealed to case studies as well as studies in animal behavior, anthropology, and history Challenged view that masturbation was abnormal Documented existence of women’s sexual desires Reevaluated homosexuality as a congenital condition

31. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956) The Kinsey Reports –Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) –Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953) –Showed a significant discrepancy between public standards and actual standards of sexual behavior

32. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Alfred Kinsey: Impact Sexual Diversity and Variation Extraordinary diversity in behaviors of subjects Many subjects (e.g. 50% of men) had sexual experiences with members of the same-sex Reevaluation of Masturbation Important for women Harmless Pleasurable

33. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Alfred Kinsey: Controversy Same sex behavior –Labels of “heterosexual” and “homosexual” were inadequate –Devised the “Kinsey Scale” Rejection of normal/abnormal dichotomy –Sexual differences are a matter of degree, not kind –Became an advocate of the tolerance Decline of society

34. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Kinsey’s Scale from 0 to 6

35. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Alfred Kinsey: Criticisms Statistical methodology: unrepresentative sampling Emphasis on quantification of sexual behavior Rejection of the psychological dimension (reducing behavior to genital activity)

36. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. William Masters (1915-2001) and Virginia Johnson (1925-) Human Sexual Response (1966) Detailed the sexual response cycles of hundreds of male and female research subjects Combined clinical observation with direct measurement of genital arousal using electronic devices

37. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Masters and Johnson: Outcomes Similarity of male and female sexual responses Women achieve orgasms via clitoral stimulation Legitimized female masturbation

38. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Masters and Johnson: Outcomes Human Sexual Inadequacy (1970) –Argued that sexual problems were not the result of neuroses or personality disorders –Rather, lack of information, poor communication, or relationship conflict contributed –Used behavioral therapy to treat sexual problems with great success

39. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Contemporary Research Studies –Several large, national, or multi-site sexuality related studies have recently been conducted The National Health and Social Life Survey (1994) The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (biannual) The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (annual) The National Survey of Family Growth (periodic) College Alcohol Study (every few years) Community Intervention Trial for Youth Project

40. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The National Health and Social Life Survey 1994 Americans are largely monogamous On average, Americans have sex about once a week Adultery is the exception, not the rule Most Americans rank vaginal intercourse as most preferred activity

41. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The National Health and Social Life Survey (cont.) Homosexuality less prevalent than originally believed Orgasms appear to be the rule for men and the exception for women Forced sex and the misperception of it remain critical problems 3% of Americans claim never to have had sex

42. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The National Survey of Family Growth 2002 A majority of Americans report experiencing a great deal of diverse sexual activity A small percentage of Americans report experiencing homosexual activity American men report more partners then women A large group of Americans do not report using condoms in the last year

43. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The Youth Risk Behavior Survey 2003 Almost half report having had sexual intercourse Few report having had sexual intercourse with four or more partners Over half report using a condom during their last sexual intercourse One fourth report of sexually active students report using alcohol or drugs during most recent sexual experience

44. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. National College Health Assessment 2005 Majority report a new sex partner in the last year Half report experiencing oral sex within the last month Half report experiencing vaginal sex within the last month Students do not routinely use condoms Birth control pills and condoms are the most commonly used contraceptive

45. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Feminist Scholarship Principles Gender is significant Female experience devalued Power is critical in relationships Different methodologies must be incorporated Ethnic diversity must be addressed

46. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Directions for Future Research Global perspective Inclusion of other fields of scientific study

47. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Ethnicity and Sexuality Researchers have begun to recognize differences among ethnic groups Related factors: socioeconomic status, environment, methodology, researcher’s stereotypes

48. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. African Americans and Research Sexual stereotypes Socioeconomic status Racism Black subcultures

49. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Latinos and Research Sexual stereotypes Traditional cultures Catholicism Acculturation

50. Copyright ©2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders Increase in population Collectivist culture Immigration Sexual stereotypes