1. Learning and Technology Computer Supported Collaborative Learning

2. Paradigms in Educational Computing ‘60s – Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) ‘70s – Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) ‘80s – Interactive Learning Environments (ILEs) ‘90s – Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)

3. Theories of Collaborative Learning Sociocognitive theory –Jean Piaget –Wilhelm Doise & Gabriel Mugny Sociocultural theory –Lev Vygotsky –Barbara Rogoff Situated learning –Lev Vygotsky –Jean Lave

4. Socio-Cognitive Theory Piagetian theory –Piaget (1926, 1932) Restructuring of prior knowledge requires challenging existing views and coordinating old with new knowledge (Piaget, 1977) These conditions will be present if children interact with peers of differing but also inadequate views (Piaget, 1932)

5. Learning mechanisms Social interaction leads to a recognition of alternative perspectives Recognition of alternative perspectives leads to mutual challenge (cognitive conflict) Mutual challenge of perspectives motivates coordination of alternatives to arrive at a solution

6. Learning mechanisms Inter-individual conflict is a more powerful stimulus for cognitive change than intra-individual conflict –Social conflict is harder to ignore than individual conflict –Partner can provide cues for solving the problem –The child is more likely to be actively involved in the joint task

7. Task characteristics Perspective-taking tasks Conservation and coordination tasks Planning tasks Problem-solving tasks

8. Perspective Taking Piaget’s ‘three mountains’ task a b c

9. Implications for learning "Criticism is born of discussion, and discussion is only possible among equals" (Piaget, 1932, p. 409) –Participants should be at an equivalent intellectual level (shared understanding) –Participants should recognise that they should not contradict themselves –Participants should recognise the need to reach agreement or find ways of justifying their different points of view –Reciprocity between participants

10. Implications for learning Tasks should be designed to promote differences in perspectives or solutions Tasks should involve opportunity for discussion of competing hypotheses or solutions Participants should be at equivalent intellectual levels

11. Implications for learning Symmetrical or assymmetrical peers? Differing vs similar views What is meant by "cognitive conflict"? Conflict in predictions vs conflict in conceptions –Howe et al. (1993) Equivalence in developmental level vs equivalence in expertise –Verba & Winnykamen (1992)

12. How can technology help? Catalyst for discussion of competing solutions Role differentiation Making hypotheses and predictions explicit Providing opportunities to disconfirm hypotheses or obtain correct solutions

13. Sociocultural Theories "What children can do with others today, they can do alone tomorrow" (Vygotsky, 1962, p. 104)

14. Learning mechanisms Development proceeds from the inter-psychological to the intra-psychological Focus on the joint construction (co-construction) of solutions Attempts to coordinate perspectives and co-construct hypotheses to arrive at a joint answer are more valuable than simply differences in perspectives

15. Learning mechanisms Causal relationship between the social and the cognitive The "zone of proximal development" The "general genetic law of cultural development" Semiotic mediation

16. The Zone of Proximal Development "...the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers." (Vygotsky, 1978)

17. The Zone of Proximal Development ZOPD as a "leading activity" (Leontiev) Related ideas –Scaffolding (Bruner) –Contingent instruction (Wood, Bruner & Ross, 1976) –Apprenticeship (Rogoff, 1990)

18. The Genetic Law of Cultural Development Development appears on two planes: first on the inter-psychological, then on the intra-psychological (Vygotsky) The individual's appropriation of what takes place on the social plane involves an active transformation

19. Internalisation Properties of the social world are not simply transferred "The process of internalisation is not the transferral of an external activity to a preexisting, internal 'plane of consciousness': it is the process in which this internal plane is formed." (Leontiev, 1981, p. 57)

20. Semiotic mediation Mediation as a "psychological tool" Intersubjectivity –Vygotsky —intersubjectivity as a process that takes place between people –Piaget — perspective-taking & decentration as individual processes working on socially-derived information

21. Task characteristics Skill acquisition Joint planning & co-construction Memory Task x age interactions?

22. Implications for learning Assymmetrical dyads (adult or more competent peer) vs symmetrical dyads Peer tutoring vs peer collaboration –Peer tutoring most effective when learners need to acquire new information or skills that do not extend beyond their conceptual reach (Damon, 1984; Rogoff, 1990) Differences in domain expertise vs differences in general intellectual level Developmental constraints?

23. Development of collaborative learning

24. Skills underlying effective collaboration and peer tutoring Coordinating mental representations –Piaget; Flavell; Doise & Mugny Understanding mental states –Tomasello Self- and other-regulation –Vygotsky; Rogoff Executive function & self-inhibition –Russell

25. Predictions Effective tutoring involves –Skill in the task –Planning ahead –Monitoring learner’s actions –Modifying next step –Inhibiting temptation to do the task Clear changes should emerge between 3 and 7 years

26. Peer tutoring in 3-7 year olds

27. Proportion of instructional moves

29. Contingent Instruction

30. Rate of Contingent Instruction

31. Summary Children who found the task easier to learn were more effective tutors Task sharing difficult for 3 & 5 year olds Systematic planning emerges at 5 years High proportion of self-regulatory speech in 3 & 5 year olds; replaced by other-regulation by 7 years 3 & 5 year olds teach by demonstration; 7 year olds better at watching and telling (self-inhibition) 7 year olds were highly contingent in tutoring 5 year olds learn effectively from observing others

32. Theory of Mind and Collaborative Play

33. Predictions Children who pass ToM (TT pairs) should show greater sustainment of shared task focus than those who fail (XX pairs) TT pairs should show greater levels of reciprocity in interactions than XX pairs Pairing a child who fails ToM with one who passes (TX) should improve the dyad’s collaboration over XX pairs

34. Method 24 same-gender friendship pairs –TT (both pass)4;0 - 5;0 –TX (pass/fail)3;10 - 4;11 –XX (fail/fail)3;6 - 4;11 15-20 min sessions of dyadic play with props for bathing/changing a doll Videotapes coded for –Joint attention –Shared task focus –Reciprocity of play

35. Coding Scheme

37. Social Play

38. Coding of play bids

39. Reciprocity in Play

40. Summary Composition of dyads with respect to ToM status leads to differences in quality of social play –XX pairs show less co-ordinated play and joint attention –TT and TX pairs engage in more shared visual attention and co-ordinated play – XX pairs initiate fewer play bids than TT and TX pairs –XX pairs show less reciprocity in play bids than TT and TX pairs –TT pairs show more reciprocal bid sequences than TX pairs

41. Conclusions The ability of a child to provide contingent support for a peer’s learning emerges at 6-7 years Developmental trend in the emergence of sustained task sharing, self- and other- regulation between 3 and 7 years Emergence of collaborative learning & contingent tutoring linked to development of –Understanding mental states in others –Self-regulation –Skills in referential communication

42. How can technology help? Instructional support –Guided discovery learning –Scaffolding –Contingent control of instruction Tools for (re)mediation

43. Situated Learning The mutual knowledge problem –Communication depends upon a "common ground" of mutually-held knowledge (Krauss & Fussell, 1990) Distributed cognition –Joint construction of a problem interpretation (Hutchins, 1991; Pea, 1993) Situated cognition –Competent performance of real word tasks "is an emergent property of moment-by-moment interactions between actors, and between actors and the environments of their action" (Suchman, 1987, p. 179)

44. Problems for cognitive psychology Practical action is not always driven by plans People aren’t very good at formal reasoning Transfer of knowledge from context to context is hard to achieve Ecological validity is problematic because we treat context as a ‘nuisance variable’

45. Characteristics of a contextual approach recognition of the relationship between psychological processes and their social, cultural and historical settings explanation of how different contexts create and reflect different forms of mental functioning explanation of how human action is mediated via context

46. The culture of learning just plain folks causal stories situations negotiable meanings socially constructed understanding students laws symbols fixed meanings immutable concepts practitioners causal models conceptual situations negotiable meanings socially constructed understanding

47. "take three-quarters of two-thirds of a cup of cottage cheese" 3/4 x 2/3 OR Situated Problem Solving

48. Cognition and Context situations shape activities relation between the problem solver and the problem salience of the activity varies in different settings theories of situated cognition do not preclude knowledge which is invariant across related situations (i.e., abstractions); they argue instead that knowledge in the abstract is insufficent for competent practice

49. Implications for Learning Learning occurs most effectively in situations resembling those of eventual practice Learning should involve "legitimate peripheral participation" in communities of practice(Lave & Wenger, 1991) Learning occurs when the learner is confronted with a "problematic" situation Argument for collaboration –Situated action is inherently social –Learning is a special case of situated action

50. How can technology help? Technology can provide access to authentic situations of practice Example - Schoolchildren interacting with scientists over the Internet

51. Dimensions of CSCL Applications Locus of use (space) –Intra-classroom –Inter-classroom –Extra-classroom Context of use (time) –Synchronous –Asynchronous Role of Technology –Problem Presentation –Mediated Communication –Representational Formalism –Etc.

52. Shared ARK Supporting co-construction of problem solutions Through shared workspaces multiple representations joint tasks structured discussion