1. Components of the Term Vernacular
One View
1a. Uncodified or unstandardized variety
1b. Acquired in the home, as a first variety
1c. Used for relatively circumscribed functions
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 77.
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2. Components of the Term Vernacular
Four Alternate Views
2. Any non-official language of a country
3. Any minority language of a country
4. The most colloquial variety in a
person's linguistic repertoire
5. Language of everyday communication
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 77.
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3. Standard Languages 1
“A standard variety is generally one which  is written  has undergone some degree of regularization or codification  is recognized as a prestigious variety or code by a community  is used for H functions alongside a diversity of L varieties.”
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, pp
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4. Standard Languages 2
“This is a very general definition and it immediately excludes most of the world's four or five thousand languages. Only a minority of the world's languages are written, and an even smaller minority are standardized in the sense of codified and accepted by the community as suitable for formal functions.”
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, pp
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5. Standard Languages 3
“A standard dialect has no particular linguistic merits, whether in vocabulary, grammar or pronunciation. It is simply the dialect of those who are politically powerful and socially prestigious.”
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 79.
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6. Lingua Francas
 “language of wider communication”  “A lingua franca is a language used for communication between people whose first languages differ.”  “More generally, however, the term lingua franca describes a language serving as a regular means of communication between different linguistic groups in a multilingual speech community.”
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, pp
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7. Lingua Francas
Tanzania: Swahili Papua New Guinea: Tok Pisin former USSR: Russian Arabic-speaking world: Classical Arabic East Africa: Swahili West Africa: Hausa China: Mandarin
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 84.
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8. Identifying Characteristics of a Pidgin Language
1. It is used in restricted domains and functions 2. It has a simplified structure and limited vocabulary compared to the source languages 3. It generally has low prestige and attracts negative attitudes—especially from outsiders
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 3rd edition. London: Longman, pp
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9. Simplified Comparison of Pidgins and Creoles
Pidgin Creole*
Native Speakers none yes
Functions limited unlimited
Domains restricted unrestricted
Vocabulary small rich
Morphology none/little expanded
Structure irregular regularized
Solidarity no yes/can
Prestige no yes/can
*This Creole is a fully developed one.
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 3rd edition. London: Longman, pp
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10. African American English 1
Phonology
 r-deletion (NOT unique to AAE = NU) guard god  l-deletion (some speakers) toll toe  Consonant cluster simplification (NU) passed pass
Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman An Introduction to Language, 6th edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, pp
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11. African American English 2
 Neutralization of [] and [] before
nasals (NU)
pin pen
 Loss of interdental fricatives (NU)
thing  fing
this, that, these, those  [d]
Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman An Introduction to Language, 6th edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, pp
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12. African American English 3
Syntax
 Double negatives (NOT unique to AAE)
He don’t know nothing.
 Deletion of ‘be’
SAE AAE
He is / He’s nice He nice
They are / They’re mine They mine
Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman An Introduction to Language, 6th edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, pp
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13. African American English 4
 Habitual ‘be’
John be happy. John is always happy.
John happy. John is happy now.
He be late. He is habitually late.
He late He is late this time.
Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman An Introduction to Language, 6th edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, pp
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14. African American English 5
Vocabulary
NOTHING in FR&H
(some of it may NOT be unique to AAE)
Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman An Introduction to Language, 6th edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, pp
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15. Multiple Negation
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd edition. London: Longman, p. 178.
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16. History of Jamaican Creole 1
 Late 17th century  British settlers raising sugarcane  Slaves imported  CONTACT Language—pidgin arose (English vocabulary; simplified syntax; African influences in pronunciation, maybe 10% of the vocabulary, and some syntax)
Montgomery, Martin An Introduction to Language and Society, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, pp
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17. History of Jamaican Creole 2
 Subsequent generations of slaves learned this language (used with masters and fellow slaves)  Evolved, "transformed into a much more complex and flexible language called a creole (defined technically as a pidgin which becomes the first language of a group)" (p. 83)
Montgomery, Martin An Introduction to Language and Society, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, pp
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18. Standard English and Jamaican Creole 1
Standard English Jamaican Creole
Plurals the other girls di addah girl dem
with those other girls wid dem addah girl
Past time I went yesterday mi go yeside
I told you so already me tel yu so aredi
I had already walked mi ben waak
home huom aredi
I have finished sleeping mi don sliip
Montgomery, Martin An Introduction to Language and Society, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, p. 84.
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19. Standard English and Jamaican Creole 2
Standard English Jamaican Creole Present what are you doing whey you a dhu out yah? out there? where are you going? whey you a go? Possession the man’s hat di man hat the man’s woman di man woman didn’t like this noh like dis
Montgomery, Martin An Introduction to Language and Society, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, p. 84.
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20. Jamaican Creole Continuum
Broadest Standard Creole English
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21. Schematic of Hypothetical Repertoires
Broadest Standard
Creole English
Speaker | | 1 2 3 4 5
The horizontal length of the line represents the breadth of the speaker's repertoire.
Based on Martin Montgomery An Introduction to Language and Society, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, pp. 85.
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