1. Sustaining Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach
Chapter 8

2. North American Gray Wolf
Reduced to a few hundred
Keystone species
Restoration proposal angered ranchers, hungers, loggers
1995, reintroduced in Yellowstone, 136 by 2007
Positive ripple effect after reintroduction

3. 8-1 How Are We Affecting the Earth’s Biodiversity and Why Should We Protect It?
Concept 8-1A We are degrading and destroying biodiversity in many parts of the world and these threats are increasing.
Concept 8-1B We should protect biodiversity because it exists and because of its usefulness to us and other species.

4. Loss of Biodiversity Earth’s biodiversity depleted and degraded
Wetlands, grasslands & forests
83% land surface disturbed
Antarctica & Greenland

5. Loss of Biodiversity Degradation of aquatic biodiversity
50% wetlands (globally)
15-35% coral reefs destroyed and damaged
Ecological fishprint unsustainable
200 commercially valuable fish overfished or at their sustainable yield
29% collapsed, w/90% in decline
Need >2.5x current ocean area
Japan, Indonesia and China

6. Lake Victoria
Lake Victoria has lost their endemic fish species to large introduced predatory fish.

7. Lake Victoria Reasons for loss of biodiversity:
Introduction of Nile perch.
Algal blooms from nutrient runoff.
Invasion of water hyacinth has blocked sunlight and deprived oxygen.
Nile perch is in decline because it has eaten its own food supply.

8. Why Protect Biodiversity
Intrinsic value
Value regardless of use to us
Instrumental value
Use Value: Usefulness in terms of economic and ecological services. (farms, crops, fisheries)
Nonuse values
Existence
Aesthetic
Bequest

9. Endangered Orangutans

10. 8-2 Managing and Sustaining Forests
Concept 8-2 We can sustain forests by recognizing the economic value of their ecological services, protecting old-growth forests, harvesting trees no faster than they are replenished, and making most paper from fast-growing plants and agricultural residues instead of trees.

11. Forest Services Forests 30% of earth’s land surface –
mostly in the mountains

12. Types of Forests Old-growth forests Second-growth forests
(primary, ancient, primeval, frontier) diverse
yrs old
22% of forests
Second-growth forests
Secondary succession
Tree plantation
Managed, uniform, clear cut, economical, depletes nutrients

13. Short Rotation Cycle Forestry

14. Loss of Original Forests
DEFORESTATION – temporary & permanent
46% in 8,000 years, most since 1950
Most in tropical areas, developing countries
Crops and cattle
Latin America, Indonesia, Africa
Estimated loss of 40% intact forests within next 20 years
Clearing is exponential ( %)

15. Video: U.S. Forests
Videos/US_Forests.mov

16. Fragmentation, destruction, and degradation.
Roads and Forests
Fragmentation, destruction, and degradation.

17. Natural Capital Degradation: Deforestation
Fig. 8-6, p. 155

18. Putting a Price Tag on Nature’s Ecological Services
The long-term health of an economy cannot be separated from the health of the natural systems that support it.
Estimated value of earth’s ecological services
$33.2 trillion per year
$4.7 trillion per year for forests
What services do we need to start factoring into land use?

19. Most due to tree plantations
Good News on Forests
2000–2005 net total forested area stabilized or increased
N. America, Europe, India, China, Turkey & Vietnam
Most due to tree plantations
Some secondary succession (cropland & cleared forests)
BENEFIT
Wood needs, decreased erosion & nutrient loss, CO2
LOSS
Decreased biodiversity & nutrients

20. Return of Forests in the United States
U.S. forests
Cover ~30% of land
Contain ~80% of wildlife species
Supply ~67% of nation’s surface water
Forest cover greater now than in 1920
Secondary succession

21. Return of Forests in the United States
Second- and third-growth forests fairly diverse
More wood grown than cut annually
40% of forests in National Forest System
155 National Forests
LOSS: transformed into tree plantations
Julia Hill – “Butterfly” – two years on a platform of California redwood tree

22. Controversy over the National Forests
Forest service mandate
Principle of sustainable yield
Harvest at replenishing rate
Principle of multiple use
Recreation, hunting & fishing in forests = 10x timber revenue
Timber companies push for tree cutting to be primary goal
Subsidized by taxpayers money
Timber sales have lost money 97 out of last 100 yrs (cost of roads, timber prep, admin, etc)

23. Harvest Methods Step one – build roads Step two – logging operations
Erosion
Invasive species
Open up for human invasion
DISQUALIFY LAND FOR PROTECTION AS WILDERNESS
Step two – logging operations
Selective cutting
Strip cutting
Clear cutting

24. Forest Harvesting Methods

25. Clear-cut Logging
Fig. 8-9, p. 157

26. Trade-offs: Clear-cutting Forests
Fig. 8-10, p. 157

27. Forests and Fires Surface fires Crown fires Burn undergrowth only
Cool fire
Ecological benefits –
remove flammables, release minerals & seeds (lodgepole), stimulate germination (sequoia/jack pine), control pathogens, post-fire food (deer, moose, elk, quail, etc)
Crown fires
Burn the entire tree, hot fire
Occur in forests with lack of surface fires (buildup)
Flames leap, are rapid, destructive, kill & erode

28. Management of Forest Fires
Fire suppression in all types of forests
Smokey Bear
Some forests naturally fire adapted
Not all fires are bad
Prescribed fires
Native Americans

29. Management of Forest Fires
Restoration of fire’s natural role:
Allow fires to burn
60 m buffer zone around homes (thinning)
Healthy Forests Restoration Act, 2003
Allows timber companies to cut med-large trees in return for clearing
Exempts thinning projects from environmental review
Paid for by taxpayers – may increase damage

30. Forest Fires Forest fires have increased – past 15 yrs
Drying from climate change
Increases climate change

31. Certifying Sustainably Grown Timber
Forest Steward Council certification of forest operations
Scientific Certification Systems (SCS)
Environmentally sound practices
Sustainable yield harvest
Minimal erosion from operations
Retention of dead wood for wildlife habitat
Steward of land and water
2005 – only 6% certified
Sweden, Poland, US, Canada

32. Solutions: Sustainable Forestry
Fig. 8-12, p. 159

33. Trees and Paper Many trees are cut for paper production Alternatives
Pulp from rice straw and agricultural residues (China)
Kenaf (U.S.)
More paper pulp/land area
Require fewer pesticides and herbicides

34. How Serious Is Tropical Deforestation and How Can It Be Reduced?
Concept 8-3 We can reduce tropical deforestation by protecting large forest areas, teaching settlers about sustainable agriculture and forestry, using government subsidies that encourage sustainable forest use, reducing poverty, and slowing population growth.

35. Tropical Forests Cover 6% of earth’s land area (size of US)
Lost 50% since 1950
Habitat for 50% of terrestrial plants and animals
Diversity increases pole to equator
Vulnerable to extinction – specialized niches
Rapid loss of 50,000–170,000 km2 per year
Imazon (2004) - land occupation/deforestation = 47%

36. Burning of a Tropical Forest
Accounts for ¾ greenhouse gas emissions.
Fig. 8-14, p. 160

37. Destruction of Tropical Forests

38. Causes of Tropical Forest Deforestation and Degradation
Population growth and poverty
Subsistence farming & poor search for land
Government subsidies
Reducing cost of harvest and grazing
Gov. gives title to land-clearers to reduce poverty but don’t teach sustainability (Ind, Mex, Brazil)
International lending agencies encourage development
Roads, soybeans, coffee, mines, logging, oil, dams
Africa, Latin America

39. Effects of Tropical Deforestation
Fragmentation of remaining patches
Roads, erosion, toppling
Remaining forests get drier and may burn
Degrades biodiversity
CO2 to the atmosphere
Accelerates climate change
Converts forest to savannah

40. Animation: Effects of Deforestation
Animations/effects_deforestation.html

41. How to Protect Tropical Forests
Teach settlers to practice small-scale sustainable agriculture
Harvest renewable resources from the forests
Debt-for-nature swaps
Foreign aid & debt relief to be stewards
Conservation concessions
Gov & NPOs give $
Gentler logging methods

42. Solutions: Sustaining Tropical Forests
Fig. 8-16, p. 162

43. Wangari Maathai and Kenya’s Green Belt Movement
Backyard small tree nursery
Organized poor women
Women paid for each surviving seedling planted
Breaks cycle of poverty
Reduces environmental degradation
People walk less distance to get fuelwood
Sparked projects in 30+ African countries

44. How Should We Manage and Sustain Grasslands?
Concept 8-4 We can sustain the productivity of rangeland by controlling the number and distribution of livestock and by restoring degraded rangeland.

45. Grasslands Ecological services
Soil formation, erosion control, nutrient cycling, carbon storage, maintaining biodiversity
Second most used and altered ecosystem by humans
Rangeland - unfenced (temperate/tropical) forage land
42% grazed by cattle, sheep, and goats
Pasture – fenced, managed, sometimes planted
Grow from the bottom – tops dispensable

46. Grasslands

47. Grasslands Overgrazing – over carrying capacity Erosion/compaction,
Invasives (sagebrush, mesquite, cactus, cheatgrass and salt cedar)
loss of productivity

48. Video: Desertification in China
Videos/Desertification_in_China.mov

49. Manage Rangelands Sustainably
Practice rotational grazing
Move fences and confine animals
Fence out riparian zone areas

50. Manage Rangelands Sustainably
Suppress invader plants
Expensive – herbicides, uproot, trample
Replant barren soil with seeds
Expensive – seeds and fertilizer
Employ controlled burns to control exotic vegetation

51. San Pedro River Rangelands

52. 8-5 How Should We Manage and Sustain Parks and Nature Reserves?
Concept 8-5 Sustaining biodiversity will require protecting much more of the earth’s remaining undisturbed land area, starting with the most endangered biodiversity hot spots.

53. National Parks >1,100 national parks in 120 countries
Only 1% of parks in developing countries are protected

54. Problems Protecting National Parks
Local people invade parks to survive
Illegal logging & mining
Wildlife poaching
Most parks too small to protect large animals
Result in invasion of nonnative species

55. Stresses on U.S. National Parks
System Est by Congress
Biggest problem popularity
Damage from nonnative species
Threatened islands of biodiversity

56. Nature Reserves Occupy a Fraction of Earth
12% of earth’s land protected
Only 5% fully protected (places we don’t want to live) – 95% reserved for human use
Need for conservation
Minimum 20% of land in biodiversity reserves – multiple examples of all biomes

57. Solutions for Protection
Requires action – bottom-up political pressure
We, the people
Nature Conservancy – world’s largest private system of reserves
Maintained by private, local citizens
Opposed by those who say areas contain valuable resources
Buffer zone Concept
U.N. Biosphere Reserves (425) – underfunded/staffed
Locals to manage reserves and buffer zones

58. Model Biosphere Reserve
Fig. 8-20, p. 167

59. Solutions: National Parks
Fig. 8-19, p. 166

60. Case Study: Costa Rica Superpower of biodiversity
More bird species than all North America
Government eliminated deforestation subsidies
Paid landowners to maintain/restore tree coverage
Goal to make sustainable forestry profitable
Has gone from highest to lowest deforestation

61. Costa Rica’s Megareserve Network
Conserved 25% of its land, 8 megareserves
Fig. 8-21, p. 167

62. Protecting Wilderness Protects Biodiversity
Wilderness – land legally set aside/undeveloped
US Wilderness Society - Minimum size >4,000 km2
Otherwise impacted by air, noise, water pollution
Preserves natural capital
Centers for evolution
CRITICS: we cannot use it for its economic value

63. STEPS: FWS - NPS

64. STEPS: USFS

65. Controversy over Wilderness Protection in the U.S.
1964 Wilderness Act
National Wilderness Preservation System
Increased wilderness 10-fold ( ),
¾ in Alaska, 98% of lower 48 unprotected
Only 4 of 413 wilderness areas >4,000 sq km, 81 of 233 distinct ecosystems
Roadless Rule protects 400,000 sq. miles
Pressure from oil, gas, mining, and logging
2005 Secretary of Interior removed protection & disqualified cow paths and off-road vehicle trails

66. Global Biodiversity Hotspots
17 megadiversity countries in tropics and subtropics
Indonesia, Colombia, Mexico, Brazil, Ecuador
Two-thirds of biodiversity
Biodiversity hotspots – economically poor/diversity rich
Animations/hotspots.html

67. Biodiversity Hotspots in the U.S.
Fig. 8-23, p. 169

68. 8-6 Restoration Ecology
Concept 8-6 Sustaining biodiversity will require a global effort to rehabilitate and restore damaged ecosystems.

69. Ecological Restoration
Ecological Restoration – repairing the damage
Replanting, reclaiming urban (brownfields), restoring wetlands, reintroducing natives/removing invasives & dams
effective if GLOBAL & mostly natural (secondary succession)
Restoration – return to similar state
Rehabilitation – return to functional/useful, not necessarily natural
Replacement – for another ecosystem
Creating artificial ecosystems – e.g. wetlands

70. Science-based Principles for Restoration
Identify cause of degradation
Pollution, overgrazing, invasives
Stop abuse by reducing factors
Remove soil, invasives, cut down on grazing
Reintroduce species if necessary
Pioneer, keystone, foundation
Protect area from further degradation

71. Case Study: Ecological Restoration of Tropical Dry Forest in Costa Rica
One of world’s largest ecological restoration projects
Restore a degraded tropical dry forest and reconnect it to adjacent forests
Involve 40,000 people in the surrounding area – biocultural restoration
Ecotourism

72. Will Restoration Encourage Further Degradation?
It’s cheaper to protect than to restore
Does environmental restoration suggest any harm can be undone?
Scientists disagree
Restoration badly needed
Altered restored site better than no restoration

73. What Can You Do?
Fig. 8-24, p. 171

74. 8-7 How Can We Help Sustain Aquatic Biodiversity?
Concept 8-7 We can sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected sanctuaries, managing coastal development, reducing water pollution, and preventing overfishing.

75. Three Patterns of Aquatic Biodiversity
Relatively little known about the ocean and freshwater systems
Greatest biodiversity in coral reefs, estuaries, and deep-ocean floor
Higher near the coast than in open sea
Higher in the bottom region of ocean than in surface layer
More diverse habitats & food sources

76. Human Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems
Ecological Services
$1.7 trillion/yr
$3.2 million/minute
Human activities
Ocean floor degradation 150x larger than area clear-cut annually
75% of most valuable fish species overfished
IUCN - Likely extinction within our lifetime (more than any other group of species)
34% marine fish species
71% freshwater species

77. Effects of Bottom Trawling
2004- Scientists attempted high-seas bottom trawling moratorium
Iceland, Russia, China & S. Korea blocked it
Fig. 8-25, p. 172

78. Why Is Protection of Marine Biodiversity So Difficult?
Human aquatic ecological footprint expanding
Not visible to most people
Viewed as an inexhaustible resource

79. Why Is Protection of Marine Biodiversity So Difficult?
Most ocean areas outside jurisdiction of a country

80. Solutions for Marine Ecosystems
Protect endangered and threatened species
ESA, MMPA, MBTA, The Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, the Wild Bird Conservation Act
CITES, International Convention on the Regulation of Whales, and the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region
Establish protected marine sanctuaries
Since 1986, IUCN has established 1,300 global MPAs
Marine reserves – work well and quickly
Pops double, reproduction triples, adult size grows, diversity increases by 25%
Integrated coastal management
Protect existing coastal wetlands

81. Solutions: Managing Fisheries
Fig. 8-26, p. 173

82. 8-8 Priorities for Protecting Biodiversity
Map terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity
Immediately preserve biodiversity hotspots
Keep old-growth forests intact
Protect and restore lakes and rivers
Initiate ecological restoration
Make conservation profitable