1. Characteristics of Carbon and The Large Biological Molecules
Let’s Review!!

2. What name is given to a molecule that contains carbon atoms bonded to other carbon atoms?
Organic Molecule

3. What are the four types of organic compounds?
Carboyhydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Nucleic Acids

4. What elements compose each of these types of organic molecules?
Carboyhydrates – C, H, O
Proteins – C, H, O, N, sometimes S
Lipids – C, H, O
Nucleic Acids – C, H, O, N, P

5. What are the characteristics of carbon that make possible the building of such a wide variety of organic molecules?
Carbon has four valence electrons. It can form four different bonds with other carbon atoms or other atoms.
Carbon can form chains, branches, rings – a wide variety of shapes!
Can form unique, 3-D shapes.
Can form strong and stable bonds.
It form single, double or triple bonds.
Carbon compounds to not readily dissociate in water.
There is no limit to the size of the molecule.
Can bond with a wide variety or other elements and functional groups.
Only carbon has all of these characteristics.

6. What name is given to an organic molecule consisting only of carbon and hydrogen?
Hydrocarbon

7. What name is given to a small, specific group of atoms that can be attached to a carbon skeleton?
Functional Group

8. Functional groups give the molecule its unique shape.
What are the two functions of functional groups?
Functional groups give the molecule its unique shape.
Functional groups behave a certain way in chemical reactions.

9. Found in sugar molecules. Makes molecules very polar.
What is the name of this functional group? Where would you find this functional group?
-OH
Hydroxyl
Found in sugar molecules.
Makes molecules very polar.

10. Found in sugar molecules. Makes molecules very polar.
What is the name of this functional group? Where would you find this functional group?
-C=O
Carbonyl
Found in sugar molecules.
Makes molecules very polar.

11. Found in proteins and lipids. Makes molecules very polar.
What is the name of this functional group? Where would you find this functional group?
-COOH
Carboxyl
Found in proteins and lipids.
Makes molecules very polar.
Has acidic properties

12. Found in all amino acids
What is the name of this functional group? Where would you find this functional group?
-NH2 or –NH3+
Amino
Found in all amino acids

13. Found in the amino acid cysteine.
What is the name of this functional group? Where would you find this functional group?
-SH
Sulfhydryl
Found in the amino acid cysteine.
Forms disulfide bridges in the tertiary structure of a protein.

14. Found in phospholipids, DNA, RNA, and ATP
What is the name of this functional group? Where would you find this functional group?
-PO4
Phosphate
Found in phospholipids, DNA, RNA, and ATP

15. The simple sugars such as glucose.
What are the building blocks of carbohydrates?
The simple sugars such as glucose.

16. They always consist of C, H, and O in a 1:2:1 ratio.
How are simple sugar molecules recognized? What functional groups will they have?
They always consist of C, H, and O in a 1:2:1 ratio.
They have both hydroxyl groups and carbonyl groups.

17. Fatty acids and glycerol
What are the building blocks of lipids?
Fatty acids and glycerol

18. How do you recognize glycerol?
It is a 3 carbon compound with hydroxyl on each carbon. There is no 1:2:1 ratio.

19. It has a very long carbon skeleton with a carboxyl group at one end.
How do you recognize a fatty acid?
It has a very long carbon skeleton with a carboxyl group at one end.

20. What are the building blocks of proteins?
Amino Acids

21. How do you recognize an amino acid?
It consists of a carbon atom bonded to:
A carboxyl group
An amino group
One single hydrogen
An “R” group which varies in each amino acid.

22. How many amino acids are there?20

23. Describe a nitrogenous base.
It is a ringed structure with carbon and nitrogen alternating in the ring. It may have a single ring or a double ring.

24. Name the nitrogen bases.
Adenine
Thymine
Cytosine
Guanine

25. A purine is a nitrogen base with 2 rings – adenine and guanine.
What are purines and pyrimidines
A purine is a nitrogen base with 2 rings – adenine and guanine.
A pyrimidine is a nitrogen base with 1 ring – cytosine and thymine.

26. What name is given to “giant” molecules that are formed by the joining of many smaller molecules?
Macromolecules

27. A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked together by covalent bonds.
Polymer

28. What are “monomers”?
Smaller molecules that are the repeating subunits that are joined together to make polymers.

29. Molecules of simple sugars such as glucose.
What are the monomers of carbohydrates?
Molecules of simple sugars such as glucose.

30. What are the monomers of proteins?
Amino Acids

31. What is a dehydration reaction?
This is the reaction that joins two monomers together. A water molecule is removed between two monomers. One monomer contributes the “OH” and the other contributes the “H”

32. What is a hydrolysis reaction?
Polymers are disassembled to monomers by hydrolysis. The bonds are broken by the addition of a water molecule.

33. Sugars, starches, and celluloses.
What are three examples of carbohydrates?
Sugars, starches, and celluloses.

34. By the number of sugar monomers composing them.
How are the carbohydrates classified?
By the number of sugar monomers composing them.

35. What are the three levels of sugar composition? Describe each.
Monosaccharides – One molecule of sugar.
Disaccharides – Two molecules of sugar bonded together.
Polysaccharides – Many molecules of sugar bonded together.

36. What purpose do the simple sugars serve? Give 2!
Glucose is the principle energy source of all living organisms. It is converted to ATP by the mitochondria.
The carbon skeletons can serve as the raw materials for the synthesis of other types of biological molecules.

37. What is a glycosidic linkage?
It is a covalent bond formed between 2 monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.

38. Give a purpose of disaccharides.
Sugars are transported throughout a plant in the form of disaccharides.
(Sugars are transported as monosaccharides in animals.)

39. What are two types of polysaccharides?
Structural Polysaccharides
Storage Polysaccharides.

40. What are the two types of storage polysaccharide? Define each.
Starch – This is how plants store their excess glucose molecules. Many, many glucose molecules are bonded together to form starch.
Glycogen – This is how animals store excess glucose. Many molecules of glucose are bonded together by the liver to form glycogen.

41. What are the two types of structural polysaccharide? Define each.
Cellulose – Forms the tough, fibrous material found in the cell wall of plants.
Chitin – Used by arthropods to build their exoskeletons. Used by fungi as the structural component of their cell wall.

42. Name the types of lipids.
Fat
Oil
Wax
Phospholipids
Cholesterol

43. What is a distinguishing characteristic of lipids?
They are nonpolar and are not soluble in polar solvents such as water.

44. What type of molecule is this. Explain how you know.
It is a simple sugar. There is only C, H, and O and it is present in a 1:2:1 ratio.

45. What type of molecules are these? Explain how you know.
These are amino acids. They have a carbon atom bonded to a carboxyl group, an amino group, a single hydrogen and an “R” group.

46. What type of molecule is this. Explain how you know.
It is a lipid. It has one molecule of glycerol and three fatty acid tails.

47. What type of molecule is this. Explain how you know.
What is this?
What is this?
Fatty Acid
Glycerol

48. What type of molecule is this. Explain how you know.
It is a simple sugar. It has the formula CH2O.

49. What is a saturated fatty acid?
They contain NO carbon to carbon double bonds. As many hydrogen atoms as possible are bonded to the carbon atoms.

50. What is an unsaturated fatty acid?
They DO contain carbon to carbon double bonds. There will be a “kink” in the tail wherever a double formed is found.

51. Why are the unsaturated fatty acids more healthy for us than the saturated fatty acids?
The “kinky tails” of the unsaturated fats prevent them from packing too close together. They form liquids at room temperature.
The saturated fatty acids have no kinks and will pack very closely together, forming solids. These may lead to cardiovascular diseases.

52. What are some uses of Lipids?
Good source of energy.
They are used to insulate the body.
They cushion the internal organs.
Phospholipids are a structural component of membranes.

53. How are the phospholipids different from other fats?
They are composed of glycerol, but only have 2 fatty acid tails instead of three. One tail is saturated, the other is unsaturated.

54. Describe how the lipids are arranged in a membrane.
There is a double layer (bilayer) of lipids in the membrane. The hydrophilic glycerol head is found on the outer edge and the inner edge of the membrane. The hydrophobic fatty acid tails point to each other across the middle of the membrane.

55. What is the importance of this arrangement?
The glycerol molecules draw water to the membrane, but the hydrophobic fatty acid tails make the membrane insoluble in water.

56. What is the purpose of wax in biological systems.
Wax is generally used as a water proofing material on leaves, fruits, feathers, fur.

57. List some of the purposes of proteins.
Enzymes
Hormones
Transport (hemoglobin)
Contractile (muscle tissue)
Antibodies
Membrane structure
Structural proteins

58. What is a peptide bond?
A covalent bond formed by a dehydration reaction that links the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of another amino acid.

59. What is a polypeptide?
A chain of amino acids held together by peptide bonds. It is not yet a fully functioning protein.

60. As proteins go, remember this! __________ determines __________!!
Shape determines function!

61. What are the four levels of protein organization?
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Quaternary

62. What is the primary structure of a protein?
The primary structure is the unique sequence of amino acids that are put together by the ribosomes of the cell.

63. What is the secondary structure of a protein?
The secondary structure is the initial folding and shaping of the polypeptide. It is the repetitive folding due to the formation of hydrogen bonds at regular intervals.

64. What is the tertiary structure of a protein?
Tertiary structure is irregular contortions of a protein due to bonding between side chains. Tertiary structure gives the protein its shape. It is due to hydrophobic interactions and disulfide bridges.

65. What are hydrophobic interactions?
It is the clustering of hydrophobic side chains at the center of the protein.

66. What are disulfide bridges?
Covalent bonds between the side chains of two cysteine amino acids. The sulfur of one cysteine bonds to the sulfur of the second.

67. What is the quaternary structure of a protein?
Two or more polypeptide subunits combine to form a functional protein.

68. What has happened when a protein has become denatured?
A denatured protein has lost its unique, 3-D shape. It is inactive and can no longer carry out its function.

69. What are the two types of nucleic acids?
DNA
RNA

70. What are nucleic acids composed of?
Nucleotides

71. What are the three components of a nucleotide?
Sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base.

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