1. Chapter 13 Food, Soil Conservation, and Pest Management

2. Chapter Overview Questions  What is food security?  How serious are malnutrition and overnutrition?  How is the world’s food produced?  How are soils being degraded and eroded, and what can be done to reduce these losses?  What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the green revolution to produce food?

3. Chapter Overview Questions (cont’d)  What are the environmental effects of producing food?  What are the advantages and disadvantages of using genetic engineering to produce food?  How can we produce more meat, fish, and shellfish?  How can we protect food resources from pests?

4. Chapter Overview Questions (cont’d)  How do government policies affect food production and food security?  How can we produce food more sustainably?

5. Updates Online The latest references for topics covered in this section can be found at the book companion website. Log in to the book’s e-resources page at www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles.  InfoTrac: A renewable economy as a global ethic. Michael Lerner. The American Prospect, April 2006 v17 i4 pA30(2).  InfoTrac: Appetite for destruction. Kathleen McGowam. Audubon, July-August 2006 v108 i4 p70(2).  InfoTrac: Boom times for protein. Lester R. Brown. USA Today (Magazine) July 2006 v135 i2734 p59(1).  Union of Concerned Scientists: Genetic Engineering  USDA: Fueling the Green Revolution

6. Core Case Study: Golden Rice - Grains of Hope or an Illusion?  Golden rice is a new genetically engineered strain of rice containing beta- carotene.  Can inexpensively supply vitamin A to malnourished. Figure 13-1

7. Core Case Study: Golden Rice - Grains of Hope or an Illusion?  Critics contend that there are quicker and cheaper ways to supply vitamin A.  Scientist call for more evidence that the beta-carotene will be converted to vitamin A by the body. Figure 13-1

8. FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION  Global food production has stayed ahead of population growth. However: One of six people in developing countries cannot grow or buy the food they need. One of six people in developing countries cannot grow or buy the food they need. Others cannot meet their basic energy needs (undernutrition / hunger) or protein and key nutrients (malnutrition). Others cannot meet their basic energy needs (undernutrition / hunger) or protein and key nutrients (malnutrition).

9. FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION  The root cause of hunger and malnutrition is poverty.  Food security means that every person in a given area has daily access to enough nutritious food to have an active and healthy life. Need large amounts of macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, and fats). Need large amounts of macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, and fats). Need smaller amounts of micronutrients (vitamins such as A,C, and E). Need smaller amounts of micronutrients (vitamins such as A,C, and E).

10. FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION  One in three people has a deficiency of one or more vitamins and minerals, especially vitamin A, iodine (causes goiter - enlargement of thyroid gland), and iron. Figure 13-2

11. War and the Environment  Starving children collecting ants to eat in famine-stricken Sudan, Africa which has been involved in civil war since 1983. Figure 13-3

12. Solutions: Reducing Childhood Deaths from Hunger and Malnutrition  There are several ways to reduce childhood deaths from nutrition-related causes: Immunize children. Immunize children. Encourage breast-feeding. Encourage breast-feeding. Prevent dehydration from diarrhea. Prevent dehydration from diarrhea. Prevent blindness from vitamin A deficiency. Prevent blindness from vitamin A deficiency. Provide family planning. Provide family planning. Increase education for women. Increase education for women.

13. Malnutrition and Famines  One quarter of the human population is malnourished Sub-Saharan Africa (~225 million) Sub-Saharan Africa (~225 million) East and Southeast Asia (~275 million) East and Southeast Asia (~275 million) South Asia (~250 million) South Asia (~250 million) Parts of Latin America Parts of Latin America

15. Overnutrition: Eating Too Much  Overnutrition and lack of exercise can lead to reduced life quality, poor health, and premature death.  A 2005 Boston University study found that about 60% of American adults are overweight and 33% are obese (totaling 93%).  Americans spend $42 billion per year trying to lose weight.  $24 billion per year is needed to eliminate world hunger.

17. FOOD PRODUCTION  Food production from croplands, rangelands, ocean fisheries, and aquaculture has increased dramatically.  Wheat, rice, and corn provide more than half of the world’s consumed calories. Fish and shellfish are an important source of food for about 1 billion people mostly in Asia and in coastal areas of developing countries. Fish and shellfish are an important source of food for about 1 billion people mostly in Asia and in coastal areas of developing countries.

18. Plant Food Sources  250,000 plant species   3000 tried as crops   300 grown for food   100 species used on large scale for food   15 to 20 species provide vast majority (90%) of man’s food needs  It takes about 16 pounds of grain to produce one pound of edible meat  Largest crop volumes provided by: wheat, rice, corn, potatoes, barley Wheat and rice supply ~60% of human caloric intake Wheat and rice supply ~60% of human caloric intake

19. Grain Production  Grain production increased from 631 to 1780 million metric tons from 1950 to 1990.  Has leveled off since then  Top five countries in order of producing the most amount of grain are: 1. China 2. United States 3. India 4. Canada 5. Ukraine

21. Limits on Food Production  arable land  precipitation  temperature  global warming (ice age temp was only 5 o C less than now!)

22. Methods to Increase Food Supply  Improved irrigation and utilization of water Drip irrigation Drip irrigation  Increasing arable land Difficult because of precipitation and temperature Difficult because of precipitation and temperature  Eating lower on the food chain Most rangeland is not arable and humans cannot utilize grass/hay as food; therefore, this argument is not considered valid Most rangeland is not arable and humans cannot utilize grass/hay as food; therefore, this argument is not considered valid

23. Methods to Increase Food Supply  Food distribution modification Today distribution of food is a major problem in Africa/Asia Today distribution of food is a major problem in Africa/Asia Best solution: teach locals how to best utilize their land with appropriate technology so they can attempt to support themselves and not rely on others. Best solution: teach locals how to best utilize their land with appropriate technology so they can attempt to support themselves and not rely on others.

24. How much Land is Arable?

30. Industrial Food Production: High Input Monocultures  About 80% of the world’s food supply is produced by industrialized agriculture. Uses large amounts of fossil fuel energy, water, commercial fertilizers, and pesticides to produce monocultures. Uses large amounts of fossil fuel energy, water, commercial fertilizers, and pesticides to produce monocultures. Greenhouses are increasingly being used. Greenhouses are increasingly being used. Plantations are being used in tropics for cash crops such as coffee, sugarcane, bananas. Plantations are being used in tropics for cash crops such as coffee, sugarcane, bananas.

31. Fig. 13-4, p. 275 Plantation agriculture Shifting cultivation Industrialized agriculture No agriculture Intensive traditional ag. Nomadic herding

32. FOOD PRODUCTION  Satellite images of massive and rapid development of greenhouse food production in Spain from 1974 (left) to 2000 (right). Figure 13-5

33. Industrial Food Production: High Input Monocultures  Livestock production in developed countries is industrialized: Feedlots are used to fatten up cattle before slaughter. Feedlots are used to fatten up cattle before slaughter. Most pigs and chickens live in densely populated pens or cages. Most pigs and chickens live in densely populated pens or cages. Most livestock are fed grain grown on cropland. Most livestock are fed grain grown on cropland. Systems use a lot of energy and water and produce huge amounts of animal waste. Systems use a lot of energy and water and produce huge amounts of animal waste.

34. Fig. 13-6, p. 276 Natural Capital Croplands Help maintain water flow and soil infiltration Food crops Provide partial erosion protection Fiber crops Can build soil organic matter Crop genetic resources Store atmospheric carbon Provide wildlife habitat for some species Jobs Ecological Services Economic Services

35. Case Study: Industrialized Food Production in the United States  The U.S. uses industrialized agriculture to produce about 17% of the world’s grain. Relies on cheap energy to run machinery, process food, produce commercial fertilizer and pesticides. Relies on cheap energy to run machinery, process food, produce commercial fertilizer and pesticides.  About 10 units of nonrenewable fossil fuel energy are needed to put 1 unit of food energy on the table.

36. Case Study: Industrialized Food Production in the United States  Industrialized agriculture uses about 17% of all commercial energy in the U.S. and food travels an average 2,400 kilometers from farm to plate. Figure 13-7

37. Fig. 13-7, p. 277 4% Food production Food distribution and preparation Food processing LivestockCrops 5%6%2% 17% of total U.S. commercial energy use

38. Traditional Agriculture: Low Input Polyculture  Many farmers in developing countries use low- input agriculture to grow a variety of crops on each plot of land (interplanting) through: Polyvarietal cultivation: planting several genetic varieties. Polyvarietal cultivation: planting several genetic varieties. Intercropping: two or more different crops grown at the same time in a plot. Intercropping: two or more different crops grown at the same time in a plot. Agroforestry: crops and trees are grown together. Agroforestry: crops and trees are grown together. Polyculture: different plants are planted together. Polyculture: different plants are planted together.

39. Traditional Agriculture: Low Input Polyculture  Research has shown that, on average, low input polyculture produces higher yields than high-input monoculture. Figure 13-8

40. SOIL EROSION AND DEGRADATION  Soil erosion lowers soil fertility and can overload nearby bodies of water with eroded sediment. Sheet erosion: surface water or wind peel off thin layers of soil. Sheet erosion: surface water or wind peel off thin layers of soil. Rill erosion: fast-flowing little rivulets of surface water make small channels. Rill erosion: fast-flowing little rivulets of surface water make small channels. Gully erosion: fast-flowing water join together to cut wider and deeper ditches or gullies. Gully erosion: fast-flowing water join together to cut wider and deeper ditches or gullies.

41. SOIL EROSION AND DEGRADATION  Soil erosion is the movement of soil components, especially surface litter and topsoil, by wind or water.  Soil erosion increases through activities such as farming, logging, construction, overgrazing, and off-road vehicles. Figure 13-9

42. Global Outlook: Soil Erosion  Soil is eroding faster than it is forming on more than one-third of the world’s cropland. Figure 13-10

43. Fig. 13-10, p. 279 Some concern Serious concern Stable or nonvegetative

44. Case Study: Soil Erosion in the U.S. – Some Hopeful Signs  Soil erodes faster than it forms on most U.S. cropland, but since 1985, has been cut by about 40%. 1985 Food Security Act (Farm Act): farmers receive a subsidy for taking highly erodible land out of production and replanting it with soil saving plants for 10-15 years. 1985 Food Security Act (Farm Act): farmers receive a subsidy for taking highly erodible land out of production and replanting it with soil saving plants for 10-15 years.

45. Fig. 13-11, p. 280 Very severeSevereModerate

46. Desertification: Degrading Drylands  About one-third of the world’s land has lost some of its productivity because of drought and human activities that reduce or degrade topsoil. Figure 13-12

47. Fig. 13-12, p. 280 CausesConsequences Overgrazing Worsening drought Deforestation Famine Erosion Economic losses Salinization Lower living standards Soil compaction Natural climate change Environmental refugees

48. Salinization and Waterlogging  Repeated irrigation can reduce crop yields by causing salt buildup in the soil and waterlogging of crop plants. Figure 13-13

49. Fig. 13-13, p. 281 Evaporation Transpiration Evaporation Waterlogging Salinization Waterlogging 1. Irrigation water contains small amounts of dissolved salts 2. Evaporation and transpiration leave salts behind. 3. Salt builds up in soil. 1. Precipitation and irrigation water percolate downward. 2. Water table rises. Less permeable clay layer

50. Fig. 13-15, p. 281 Cleanup Prevention Soil Salinization Solutions Reduce irrigation Switch to salt- tolerant crops (such as barley, cotton, sugarbeet) Flush soil (expensive and wastes water) Stop growing crops for 2–5 years Install underground drainage systems (expensive)

51. Salinization and Waterlogging of Soils: A Downside of Irrigation  Example of high evaporation, poor drainage, and severe salinization.  White alkaline salts have displaced cops. Figure 13-14

52. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE THROUGH SOIL CONSERVATION  Modern farm machinery can plant crops without disturbing soil (no-till and minimum tillage. Conservation-tillage farming: Conservation-tillage farming: Increases crop yield.Increases crop yield. Raises soil carbon content.Raises soil carbon content. Lowers water use.Lowers water use. Lowers pesticides.Lowers pesticides. Uses less tractor fuel.Uses less tractor fuel.

53. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE THROUGH SOIL CONSERVATION  Terracing, contour planting, strip cropping, alley cropping, and windbreaks can reduce soil erosion. Figure 13-16

54. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE THROUGH SOIL CONSERVATION  Fertilizers can help restore soil nutrients, but runoff of inorganic fertilizers can cause water pollution. Organic fertilizers: from plant and animal (fresh, manure, or compost) materials. Organic fertilizers: from plant and animal (fresh, manure, or compost) materials. Commercial inorganic fertilizers: Active ingredients contain nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium and other trace nutrients. Commercial inorganic fertilizers: Active ingredients contain nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium and other trace nutrients.

55. THE GREEN REVOLUTION AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT  Since 1950, high-input agriculture has produced more crops per unit of land.  In 1967, fast growing dwarf varieties of rice and wheat were developed for tropics and subtropics. Figure 13-17

56. THE GREEN REVOLUTION AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT  Lack of water, high costs for small farmers, and physical limits to increasing crop yields hinder expansion of the green revolution.  Since 1978 the amount of irrigated land per person has declined due to: Depletion of underground water supplies. Depletion of underground water supplies. Inefficient irrigation methods. Inefficient irrigation methods. Salt build-up. Salt build-up. Cost of irrigating crops. Cost of irrigating crops.

57. THE GREEN REVOLUTION AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT  Modern agriculture has a greater harmful environmental impact than any human activity.  Loss of a variety of genetically different crop and livestock strains might limit raw material needed for future green and gene revolutions. In the U.S., 97% of the food plant varieties available in the 1940 no longer exist in large quantities. In the U.S., 97% of the food plant varieties available in the 1940 no longer exist in large quantities.

58. Fig. 13-18, p. 285 Biodiversity LossSoil Water Air PollutionHuman Health Loss and degradation of grasslands, forests, and wetlands Erosion Water waste Greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel use Nitrates in drinking water Loss of fertility Aquifer depletion Pesticide residues in drinking water, food, and air Salinization Increased runoff and flooding from cleared land Other air pollutants from fossil fuel use Fish kills from pesticide runoff Waterlogging Sediment pollution from erosion Greenhouse gas emissions of nitrous oxide from use of inorganic fertilizers Contamination of drinking and swimming water with disease organisms from livestock wastes Desertification Killing wild predators to protect livestock Fish kills from pesticide runoff Surface and groundwater pollution from pesticides and fertilizers Belching of the greenhouse gas methane by cattle Loss of genetic diversity of wild crop strains replaced by monoculture strains Bacterial contamination of meat Overfertilization of lakes and rivers from runoff of fertilizers, livestock wastes, and food processing wastes Pollution from pesticide sprays

59. THE GENE REVOLUTION  To increase crop yields, we can mix the genes of similar types of organisms and mix the genes of different organisms. Artificial selection has been used for centuries to develop genetically improved varieties of crops. Artificial selection has been used for centuries to develop genetically improved varieties of crops. Genetic engineering develops improved strains at an exponential pace compared to artificial selection. Genetic engineering develops improved strains at an exponential pace compared to artificial selection.  Controversy has arisen over the use of genetically modified food (GMF).

60. Mixing Genes  Genetic engineering involves splicing a gene from one species and transplanting the DNA into another species. Figure 13-19

61. Fig. 13-19, p. 287 Projected Disadvantages Irreversible and unpredictable genetic and ecological effects Need less fertilizer Need less water More resistant to insects, disease, frost, and drought Harmful toxins in food from possible plant cell mutations Grow faster New allergens in food Can grow in slightly salty soils Lower nutrition Less spoilage Increased development of pesticide-resistant insects and plant diseases Need less pesticides Can create herbicide- resistant weeds Better flavor Tolerate higher levels of herbicides Can harm beneficial insects Lower genetic diversity Higher yields Trade-Offs Genetically Modified Crops and Foods Projected Advantages

62. THE GENE REVOLUTION  The winged bean, a GMF, could be grown to help reduce malnutrition and the use of large amounts of inorganic fertilizers. Figure 13-20

63. How Would You Vote? To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response system, access “JoinIn Clicker Content” from the PowerLecture main menu for Living in the Environment.  Do the advantages of genetically engineered foods outweigh their disadvantages? a. No. The impact of these foods could cause serious harm to the environment or human health. a. No. The impact of these foods could cause serious harm to the environment or human health. b. Yes. These foods are needed to combat world hunger. b. Yes. These foods are needed to combat world hunger.

64. THE GENE REVOLUTION  Controversy has arisen over the use of genetically modified food (GMF). Critics fear that we know too little about the long- term potential harm to human and ecosystem health. Critics fear that we know too little about the long- term potential harm to human and ecosystem health.  There is controversy over legal ownership of genetically modified crop varieties and whether GMFs should be labeled.

65. How Would You Vote? To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response system, access “JoinIn Clicker Content” from the PowerLecture main menu for Living in the Environment.  Should labeling of GMFs be required? a. Yes, people have the right to make informed decisions about what they are buying. a. Yes, people have the right to make informed decisions about what they are buying. b. No, research shows that GM organisms are safe. Labeling will scare consumers and penalize producers. b. No, research shows that GM organisms are safe. Labeling will scare consumers and penalize producers.

66. PRODUCING MORE MEAT  About half of the world’s meat is produced by livestock grazing on grass.  The other half is produced under factory-like conditions (feedlots). Densely packed livestock are fed grain or fish meal. Densely packed livestock are fed grain or fish meal.  Eating more chicken and farm-raised fish and less beef and pork reduces harmful environmental impacts of meat production.

67. Fig. 13-21, p. 289 Trade-Offs Animal Feedlots AdvantagesDisadvantages Increased meat production Need large inputs of grain, fish meal, water, and fossil fuels Higher profits Concentrate animal wastes that can pollute water Less land use Reduced overgrazing Reduced soil erosion Antibiotics can increase genetic resistance to microbes in humans Help protect biodiversity

68. How Many People can the World Support? Food Production and Population  The number of people the world can support depends mostly on their per capita consumption of grain and meat and how many children couples have. Research has shown that those living very low on the food chain or very high on the food chain do not live as long as those that live somewhere in between. Research has shown that those living very low on the food chain or very high on the food chain do not live as long as those that live somewhere in between.

69. PRODUCING MORE MEAT  Efficiency of converting grain into animal protein. Figure 13-22

70. Fig. 13-22, p. 290 Kilograms of grain needed per kilogram of body weight Beef cattle 7 Pigs 4 Chicken 2.2 2 Fish (catfish or carp)

71. CATCHING AND RAISING MORE FISH AND SHELLFISH  After spectacular increases, the world’s total and per capita marine and freshwater fish and shellfish catches have leveled off. Figure 13-23

72. Fig. 13-23, p. 291 Wild catch Catch (millions of metric tons) Aquaculture Per capita catch (kilograms per person) Year Total World Fish CatchWorld Fish Catch per Person Year

73. CATCHING AND RAISING MORE FISH AND SHELLFISH  Government subsidies given to the fishing industry are a major cause of overfishing. Global fishing industry spends about $25 billion per year more than its catch is worth. Global fishing industry spends about $25 billion per year more than its catch is worth. Without subsidies many fishing fleets would have to go out of business. Without subsidies many fishing fleets would have to go out of business. Subsidies allow excess fishing with some keeping their jobs longer with making less money. Subsidies allow excess fishing with some keeping their jobs longer with making less money.

74. How Would You Vote? To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response system, access “JoinIn Clicker Content” from the PowerLecture main menu for Living in the Environment.  Should governments eliminate most fishing subsidies? a. No. At least some subsidies are needed for the fishing industry to survive and provide needed food for people. a. No. At least some subsidies are needed for the fishing industry to survive and provide needed food for people. b. Yes. Government subsidies only encourage overfishing. b. Yes. Government subsidies only encourage overfishing.

75. Aquaculture: Aquatic Feedlots  Raising large numbers of fish and shellfish in ponds and cages is world’s fastest growing type of food production.  Fish farming involves cultivating fish in a controlled environment and harvesting them in captivity.  Fish ranching involves holding anadromous species that live part of their lives in freshwater and part in saltwater. Fish are held for the first few years, released, and then harvested when they return to spawn. Fish are held for the first few years, released, and then harvested when they return to spawn.

76. Fig. 13-24, p. 292 Trade-Offs Aquaculture AdvantagesDisadvantages High efficiencyNeeds large inputs of land, feed, and water High yield in small volume of water Large waste output Destroys mangrove forests and estuaries Can reduce overharvesting of conventional fisheries Uses grain to feed some species Low fuel use Dense populations vulnerable to disease Tanks too contaminated to use after about 5 years High profits Profits not tied to price of oil

77. Fig. 13-25, p. 293 Solutions More Sustainable Aquaculture Use less fishmeal feed to reduce depletion of other fish Improve management of aquaculture wastes Reduce escape of aquaculture species into the wild Restrict location of fish farms to reduce loss of mangrove forests and estuaries Farm some aquaculture species in deeply submerged cages to protect them from wave action and predators and allow dilution of wastes into the ocean Certify sustainable forms of aquaculture

78. How Would You Vote? To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response system, access “JoinIn Clicker Content” from the PowerLecture main menu for Living in the Environment.  Do the advantages of aquaculture outweigh its disadvantages? a. No. Although there are advantages, aquaculture causes significant environmental damage. a. No. Although there are advantages, aquaculture causes significant environmental damage. b. Yes. Aquaculture can protect wild marine species from commercial extinction. b. Yes. Aquaculture can protect wild marine species from commercial extinction.

79. SOLUTIONS: MOVING TOWARD GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY  People in urban areas could save money by growing more of their food. Urban gardens provide about 15% of the world’s food supply. Urban gardens provide about 15% of the world’s food supply.  Up to 90% of the world’s food is wasted. Figure 13-26

80. Government Policies and Food Production  Governments use three main approaches to influence food production: Control prices to keep prices artificially low. Control prices to keep prices artificially low. Provide subsidies to keep farmers in business. Provide subsidies to keep farmers in business. Let the marketplace decide rather that implementing price controls. Let the marketplace decide rather that implementing price controls.

81. How Would You Vote? To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response system, access “JoinIn Clicker Content” from the PowerLecture main menu for Living in the Environment.  Should governments phase out subsidies for conventional industrialized agriculture and phase in subsidies for more sustainable agriculture? a. No. Current subsidies maintain critical food supplies that should not be disrupted to Americans and others. a. No. Current subsidies maintain critical food supplies that should not be disrupted to Americans and others. b. Yes. Agricultural pollution is a serious problem and subsidies should be used to encourage environmentally friendly agriculture. b. Yes. Agricultural pollution is a serious problem and subsidies should be used to encourage environmentally friendly agriculture.

82. Solutions: Steps Toward More Sustainable Food Production  We can increase food security by slowing populations growth, sharply reducing poverty, and slowing environmental degradation of the world’s soils and croplands.

83. PROTECTING FOOD RESOURCES: PEST MANAGEMENT  Organisms found in nature (such as spiders) control populations of most pest species as part of the earth’s free ecological services. Figure 13-27

84. PROTECTING FOOD RESOURCES: PEST MANAGEMENT  We use chemicals to repel or kill pest organisms as plants have done for millions of years.  Chemists have developed hundreds of chemicals (pesticides) that can kill or repel pests. Pesticides vary in their persistence. Pesticides vary in their persistence. Each year > 250,000 people in the U.S. become ill from household pesticides. Each year > 250,000 people in the U.S. become ill from household pesticides.

85. Animation: Pesticide Examples PLAY ANIMATION

86. PROTECTING FOOD RESOURCES: PEST MANAGEMENT  Advantages and disadvantages of conventional chemical pesticides. Figure 13-28

87. Fig. 13-28, p. 295 AdvantagesDisadvantages Save livesPromote genetic resistance Increase food supplies Kill natural pest enemies Profitable to useCreate new pest species Work fastPollute the environment Safe if used properly Can harm wildlife and people

88. Individuals Matter: Rachel Carson  Wrote Silent Spring which introduced the U.S. to the dangers of the pesticide DDT and related compounds to the environment. Figure 13-A

89. The ideal Pesticide and the Nightmare Insect Pest  The ideal pest-killing chemical has these qualities: Kill only target pest. Kill only target pest. Not cause genetic resistance in the target organism. Not cause genetic resistance in the target organism. Disappear or break down into harmless chemicals after doing its job. Disappear or break down into harmless chemicals after doing its job. Be more cost-effective than doing nothing. Be more cost-effective than doing nothing.

90. Superpests  Superpests are resistant to pesticides.  Superpests like the silver whitefly (left) challenge farmers as they cause > $200 million per year in U.S. crop losses. Figure 13-29

91. Pesticide Protection Laws in the U.S.  Government regulation has banned a number of harmful pesticides but some scientists call for strengthening pesticide laws. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulate the sales of pesticides under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulate the sales of pesticides under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). The EPA has only evaluated the health effects of 10% of the active ingredients of all pesticides. The EPA has only evaluated the health effects of 10% of the active ingredients of all pesticides.

92. How Would You Vote? To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response system, access “JoinIn Clicker Content” from the PowerLecture main menu for Living in the Environment.  Do the advantages of using synthetic chemical pesticides outweigh their disadvantages? a. No. Synthetic pesticides are overused, damage the environment, and increase cancer risks. a. No. Synthetic pesticides are overused, damage the environment, and increase cancer risks. b. Yes. Pesticides save human lives and protect crops. b. Yes. Pesticides save human lives and protect crops.

93. Fig. 13-30, p. 299 What Can You Do? Reducing Exposure to Pesticides Grow some of your food using organic methods. Buy organic food. Wash and scrub all fresh fruits, vegetables, and wild foods you pick. Eat less or no meat. Trim the fat from meat.

94. Other Ways to Control Pests  There are cultivation, biological, and ecological alternatives to conventional chemical pesticides. Fool the pest through cultivation practices. Fool the pest through cultivation practices. Provide homes for the pest enemies. Provide homes for the pest enemies. Implant genetic resistance. Implant genetic resistance. Bring in natural enemies. Bring in natural enemies. Use pheromones to lure pests into traps. Use pheromones to lure pests into traps. Use hormones to disrupt life cycles. Use hormones to disrupt life cycles.

95. Other Ways to Control Pests  Biological pest control: Wasp parasitizing a gypsy moth caterpillar. Figure 13-31

96. Other Ways to Control Pests  Genetic engineering can be used to develop pest and disease resistant crop strains.  Both tomato plants were exposed to destructive caterpillars. The genetically altered plant (right) shows little damage. Figure 13-32

97. Case Study: integrated Pest Management: A Component of Sustainable Agriculture  An ecological approach to pest control uses a mix of cultivation and biological methods, and small amounts of selected chemical pesticides as a last resort. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

98. Case Study: integrated Pest Management: A Component of Sustainable Agriculture  Many scientists urge the USDA to use three strategies to promote IPM in the U.S.: Add a 2% sales tax on pesticides. Add a 2% sales tax on pesticides. Establish federally supported IPM demonstration project for farmers. Establish federally supported IPM demonstration project for farmers. Train USDA personnel and county farm agents in IPM. Train USDA personnel and county farm agents in IPM.  The pesticide industry opposes such measures.

99. How Would You Vote? To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response system, access “JoinIn Clicker Content” from the PowerLecture main menu for Living in the Environment.  Should governments heavily subsidize a switch to integrated pest management? a. No. Without extensive funding and training, mere subsidies are not enough to successfully promote integrated pest management. a. No. Without extensive funding and training, mere subsidies are not enough to successfully promote integrated pest management. b. Yes. These subsidies would decrease pollution and exposure to hazardous pesticides. b. Yes. These subsidies would decrease pollution and exposure to hazardous pesticides.

100. SOLUTIONS: SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE  Three main ways to reduce hunger and malnutrition and the harmful effects of agriculture: Slow population growth. Slow population growth. Sharply reduce poverty. Sharply reduce poverty. Develop and phase in systems of more sustainable, low input agriculture over the next few decades. Develop and phase in systems of more sustainable, low input agriculture over the next few decades.

101. Fig. 13-33, p. 302 Solutions Sustainable Organic Agriculture MoreLess High-yield polyculture Soil erosion Soil salinization Organic fertilizers Aquifer depletion Biological pest control Overgrazing Integrated pest management Overfishing Loss of biodiversity Efficient irrigation Loss of prime cropland Perennial crops Crop rotation Food waste Water-efficient crops Subsidies for unsustainable farming and fishing Soil conservation Subsidies for sustainable farming and fishing Population growth Poverty

102. Sustainable Agriculture  Results of 22 year study comparing organic and conventional farming. Figure 13-34

103. Fig. 13-34, p. 302 Solutions Organic Farming Improves soil fertility Reduces soil erosion Retains more water in soil during drought years Uses about 30% less energy per unit of yield Lowers CO 2 emissions Reduces water pollution from recycling livestock wastes Eliminates pollution from pesticides Increases biodiversity above and below ground Benefits wildlife such as birds and bats

104. Solutions: Making the Transition to More Sustainable Agriculture  More research, demonstration projects, government subsidies, and training can promote more sustainable organic agriculture. Figure 13-35

105. Fig. 13-35, p. 303 What Can You Do? Sustainable Organic Agriculture Waste less food Eat less or no meat Feed pets balanced grain foods instead of meat Use organic farming to grow some of your food Buy organic food Eat locally grown food Compost food wastes