1. Professor Peter Kalmus Physics Department http://www.ph.qmul.ac.uk p.i.p.kalmus@qmul.ac.uk Particles and the Universe Queen Mary / Goldsmiths’ Astrophysics. July 2004

2. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 2 Supernova 1987A Neutrino numbers Emitted ~ 10 58 Hit Earth ~ 10 29 Hit tank ~ 10 17 Interact ~ 10 SN 1987A Earth 170,000 light years Energy release ~ 10 46 J SN ~ 10 46 J

3. 8 arc min Large Magellanic Cloud Sanduleak - 69 o 202

5. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 5

6. 10 16 1 TeV 10 13 1 GeV 10 1 MeV 10 7 1 keV 10 4 1 eV 10 1 meV T/K Energy Particle Era Nuclear Era Atomic Era Primordial Soup Sun forms Today ps ns  s ms s 1 day 1 year Time Era of Astronomy Tevatron LEP History of the Universe 10 -12 10 -6 10 0 10 13 10 18 Time since Big Bang / s LHC Hot as Hell 445 o C = Boiling point of Brimstone

7. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 7 Primordial Soup CERN style 100 GeV / particle Ingredients 56% quarks 16% gluons 9% charged leptons 9% W & Z particles 5% neutrinos 2% photons 2% gravitons 1% Higgs bosons Recipe by Rocky Kolb Hot 3 x 10 15 K Condensed Missing ingredients Dark matter Dark energy

8. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 8 Kepler, Newton T 2 = 4  2 a 3 G M o Sun Inverse square law a Rotation in spiral galaxies Stars move too fast (measured by Doppler shift) 96 % of universe is undetected ~4% Baryonic; ~24% “Dark Matter” ~70% “Dark Energy”

9. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 9 Nuclei : how were they made ? H, He, (Li) Big Bang Li, Be, B Spallation by Cosmic Rays Other elements Inside Stars Supernova You are all made of star material ! Q/A MeV Binding energy per nucleon Atomic mass (nucleon) number A 98769876 0 50 100 150 200 Fusion add neutrons iron nickel

10. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 10 Structure of the Atom Atom ~ 10 - 10 m Nucleus Early 20 th Century electron, nucleus electric force electromagnetism 1930s bunch of grapes Proton + Neutron strong force town ~ 10 - 15 m

11. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 11 Neutrinos Antiparticles 1950s, 1960s > 200 new “elementary” (?) particles Feel weak force “predicted”  later discovered 100,000,000,000,000 per second pass through each person from the Sun Equal and opposite properties “predicted”  later discovered Annihilate with normal particles Now used in PET scans Many new particles created in high energy collisions Convert energy to mass. Einstein E = mc 2

12. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 12 Today’s building blocks Leptons (do not feel strong force) electron e - -1 e-neutrino e 0 Quarks (feel strong force) up u +2/3 down d -1/3 proton = u u d +2/3 +2/3 -1/3 = +1 neutron = u d d +2/3 -1/3 -1/3 = 0 4 particles very simple multiply by 3 (generations) multiply by 2 (antiparticles) First generation

13. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 13 Today’s building blocks Leptons (do not feel strong force) electron e - -1 e-neutrino e 0 Quarks (feel strong force) up u +2/3 down d -1/3 muon   -1  -neutrino  0 tau   -1  -neutrino  0 charm c +2/3 strange s -1/3 top t +2/3 bottom b -1/3 Also antileptons antiquarks 6 leptons 6 antileptons 6 quarks 6 antiquarks baryons q q q antibary. q q q mesons q q

14. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 14 Earth, Moon, X Solar system X Antistars in our Galaxy ? Other (anti-) galaxies ? Telescopes X Cosmic rays ? AMS (Space station) Antimatter Anti-hydrogen : made in lab Bulk antimatter ? Where ? Difficult to detect Annihilation of Antigalaxy ? Signal ? e + + e -  +  0.511 MeV  -ray “line” Alfven hypothesis Radiation pressure 

15. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 15 Leidenfrost demo

16. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 16 Constituents Internal structure ? Insect 1 lens 2 lenses 3 lenses magnifying glass microscope no improvement Resolution limited by wavelength of light ~ 5 x 10 -7 m ~ 5 x 10 3 atom ~ 5 x 10 8 nucleus To “probe” elementary particles need lower by factor more than 10 9 Quantum physics Particles have wave properties  = h / p Relativity high velocities particle creation and annihilation E = mc 2

17. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 17 Accelerator Extract beam Injector Vacuum ring RF cavities electric kick ~ Bending electro- magnet Focusing electro- magnet

18. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 18 Circular orbit demo

20. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 20 Proton source demo

21. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 21 Wire chambers Anode wires Cathode Also usually made of wires Tracks of charged particles from electronic signals Anode wires + Cathode electron Gas x coord : wire no. 1 mm y coord : drift time 0.1 mm z coord : current few cm division

22. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 22 Calorimeter Light guides Photomultiplier Metal Scintillator Waveshifter Particle creates a shower. Scintillation light measures energy deposited Energy deposited Depth into calorimeter

23. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 23 Waveshifter demo

24. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 24 Forces Gravity falling objects planet orbits stars galaxies inverse square law graviton inverse square law photon short range W ±, Z 0 Electro- magnetic atoms molecules optics electronics telecom. Weak beta decay solar fusion Strong nuclei particles short range gluon

25. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 25 Forces by exchange Analogy only Useful mental picture ?

26. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 26 Attraction

27. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 27 Unification of the fundamental forces of nature ElectricityMagnetismApplesPlanets Electro- magnetic Gravity Faraday, MaxwellNewton

28. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 28 Unification of the fundamental forces of nature ElectricityMagnetismApplesPlanets Electro- magnetic WeakStrong Gravity Faraday, MaxwellNewton Electroweak unified force Salam, Weinberg, Glashow , W +, W -, Z 0 0 80 80 90 GeV Do the W and Z particles really exist ?

29. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 29 Collider Inject anti- protons Inject protons Collide 2 beams Inside vacuum RF cavities electric kick ~ Bending electro- magnet Focusing electro- magnet Carlo Rubbia Antiprotons Simon van der Meer Stochastic cooling

30. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 30

31. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 31

32. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 32 Carriers of Weak Force Found at CERN The W boson the hypo carries the weak force which controls the production of energy in the Sun and some The Discovery of the W Boson The observation of the W intermediate vector boson, the particle that carries the weak nuclear force, is the most outstanding achievement of the CERN laboratory in Geneva and one of the most important advances in physics of this century. It is the successful conclusion of The Role of UK Scientists Twenty-five British scientists played an important part in the remarkable discovery of the W boson. They were led by Professor J D Dowell of Birmingham University, Professor P I P Kalmus of Queen Mary College and Dr A Astbury of Rutherford Appleton Laboratory. The W boson

33. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 33 From THE PRIME MINISTER 10 Downing Street To Professor P. I. P. Kalmus It is very encouraging that so many British scientists were in the team that discovered the “W boson”, and I would like to congratulate you and your colleagues from Queen Mary College on your success. I am sure that British physicists will be among the first to unify all the four basic forces

34. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 34 W and Z particles discovered UA1 Collaboration at CERN Included following members of Queen Mary Peter Kalmus Alan Honma Eric Eisenhandler Richard Keeler Reg Gibson Giordi Salvi Graham Thompson Themis Bowcock Results confirmed by another CERN collaboration, and few years later at Fermilab USA Electroweak unification confirmed Nature’s fundamental forces reduced from 4 to 3 Nobel Prizes

35. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 35 p.i.p.kalmus@qmul.ac.uk http://www.ph.qmul.ac.uk

36. Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe 36 Big Bang Hot soup ~ 12 billion years Particle physics Recreates conditions accelerators, detectors of early universe Elementary 6 quarks 6 leptons building blocks + antiparticles + dark matter Fundamental Strong Gravity Electroweak forces (gluons) (gravitons) (  W + W - Z o ) Chemical elements Stars Supernova