1. By Nazli Gharraee 8533049 April 2008
Nuclear Medicine
By Nazli Gharraee
April 2008

2. Outline History Introductions PET Image Reconstructions Imaging
Treatment
PET
Image Reconstructions

4. History 1946 first uses of nuclear medicine
1950s Widespread clinical use of nuclear medicine began
1960s measuring blood flow to the lungs and identifying cancer
1970s most organs of the body could be visualized with nuclear medicine procedures
1980s Radiopharmaceuticals, monoclonal antibodies, FDG
1990s PET

6. Introduction
Nuclear Medicine is a branch of medicine that uses radiation to provide information about a person’s anatomy and the functioning of specific organs. In most cases, the information enables physicians to provide a quick, accurate diagnosis of conditions such as cancer, heart disease, thyroid disorders and bone fractures. In some cases, radiation is used to treat the condition.
More specifically, nuclear medicine is a part of molecular imaging because it produces images that reflect biological processes that take place at the cellular and subcellular level.

7. Some Definitions Red spots (hot spots) Blue Spot (cold spots)
Various other colors may be used for 'in between' levels of gamma rays emitted.
Photomultiplier tubes
Avalanche photodiodes (APDs)
Thermal neutron
Coincidence events

8. What are radioisotopes?
The isotopes of an element have the same number of protons in their atoms (atomic number) but different masses due to different numbers of neutrons.
In an atom in the neutral state, the number of external electrons also equals the atomic number.
These electrons determine the chemistry of the atom.
The atomic mass is the sum of the protons and neutrons.
There are 82 stable elements and about 275 stable isotopes of these elements.
When a combination of neutrons and protons, which does not already exist in nature, is produced artificially, the atom will be unstable and is called a radioactive isotope or radioisotope.
There are also a number of unstable natural isotopes arising from the decay of primordial uranium and thorium.
Overall there are some 1800 radioisotopes.

9. What are radioisotopes?
At present there are up to 200 radioisotopes used on a regular basis, and most must be produced artificially.
Radioisotopes can be manufactured in several ways.
The most common is by neutron activation in a nuclear reactor. This involves the capture of a neutron by the nucleus of an atom resulting in an excess of neutrons (neutron rich).
Some radioisotopes are manufactured in a cyclotron in which protons are introduced to the nucleus resulting in a deficiency of neutrons (proton rich).
The nucleus of a radioisotope usually becomes stable by emitting an alpha and/or beta particle (or positron). These particles may be accompanied by the emission of energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation known as gamma rays. This process is known as radioactive decay.
Radioactive products which are used in medicine are referred to as radiopharmaceuticals.

10. Radioisotopes PET
Radionuclides used in PET scanning are typically isotopes with short half lives
Oxygen-15 (~2 min)
Nitrogen-13 (~10 min)
Carbon-11 (~20 min)
Fluorine-18 (~110 min)
These radionuclides are incorporated either into compounds normally used by the body such as glucose (or glucose analogues), water or ammonia, or into molecules that bind to receptors or other sites of drug action (radiotracers).

11. FDG
Most clinical PET studies in oncology utilize [18F] 2-Fluoro-2-Deoxy-D-Glucose - more commonly known as “FDG”.
FDG, an analog of glucose, becomes trapped in the cells that try to metabolize it. Its concentration is tissue builds up in proportion to the rate of glucose metabolism. Because tumors have a high rate of glucose metabolism, they concentrate FDG, and appear as “hot spots” in PET images.

12. Procedure
Introducing small amount of radiopharmaceuticals into the body by
Injection
Swallowing
Inhalation
The amount of radiopharmaceuticals used is carefully selected to provide the least amount of radiation exposure to the patient but ensure an accurate test.
Time taken for the radionuclide to travel to the target.
Taking pictures of the body by special cameras (PET,SPECT or gamma camera) .
Detecting the emitted gamma rays from inside the body by the gamma camera , converting it into an electrical signal and send to a computer.
Analysis with the computer.

13. Radiotherapy
Rapidly dividing cells are particularly sensitive to damage by radiation.
For this reason, some cancerous growths can be controlled or eliminated by irradiating the area containing the growth.
Many therapeutic procedures are palliative, usually to relieve pain. For instance, strontium-89 and (increasingly) samarium 153 are used for the relief of cancer-induced bone pain. Rhenium-186 is a newer product for this.
Treating leukemia may involve a bone marrow transplant, in which case the defective bone marrow will first be killed off with a massive (and otherwise lethal) dose of radiation before being replaced with healthy bone marrow from a donor.

14. TAT
A new field is Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT), especially for the control of dispersed cancers. The short range of very energetic alpha emissions in tissue means that a large fraction of that irradiative energy goes into the targeted cancer cells, once a carrier has taken the alpha-emitting radionuclide to exactly the right place.
An experimental development of this is Boron Neutron Capture Therapy using boron-10 which concentrates in malignant brain tumors. The patient is then irradiated with thermal neutrons which are strongly absorbed by the boron, producing high-energy alpha particles which kill the cancer.

15. Advantages
It provides doctors with information about both structure and function.
It’s a way to gather the medical information that would otherwise be unavailable, require surgery, or necessitate more expensive diagnostic tests.
Often identify abnormalities very early in the progress of a disease, long before many medical problems are apparent with other diagnostic test.
It determines the presence of a disease based on biological changes rather than changes in anatomy.
Combination with CT scan can give the image of both bone and soft tissue.
It’s extremely safe because
The radioactive tracers, or radiopharmaceuticals, used are quickly eliminated from the body through its natural functions.
The tracers used rapidly lose their radioactivity.
The dose of radiation necessary for a scan is very small.

17. PET
Positron emission tomography (PET) is a nuclear medicine imaging technique which produces a three-dimensional image or map of functional processes in the body.
The system detects pairs of gamma rays emitted indirectly by a positron-emitting radioisotope, which is introduced into the body on a metabolically active molecule.

18. The technique depends on simultaneous or coincident detection of the pair of photons; photons which do not arrive in pairs (i.e., within a few nanoseconds) are ignored.
These are detected when they reach a scintillator material in the scanning device, creating a burst of light which is detected by photomultiplier tubes or Silicon Avalanche Photodiodes (Si APD).
After traveling up to a few millimeters the positron encounters and annihilates with an electron, producing a pair of annihilation (gamma) photons moving in opposite directions.
As the radioisotope undergoes positron emission decay (also known as positive beta decay), it emits a positron, the antimatter counterpart of an electron.

19. Localization of the positron annihilation event
Line Of Response (LOR)
Width of LOR
Time of flight

21. Image reconstruction using coincidence statistics
Coincidence events
LOR
Similar to CT scan reconstruction
A normal PET data set has millions
of counts for the whole acquisition,
while the CT can reach a few billion counts.
PET data suffer from scatter and random
events much more dramatically than CT data does.

22. Image Reconstruction Attenuation correction
As different LORs must traverse different thicknesses of tissue, the photons are attenuated differentially.
The result is that structures deep in the body are reconstructed as having falsely low tracer uptake.
While attenuation corrected images are generally more faithful representations, the correction process is itself susceptible to significant artifacts. As a result, both corrected and uncorrected images are always reconstructed and read together.

23. Image Reconstruction 2D/3D
Early PET scanners had only a single ring of detectors, hence the acquisition of data and subsequent reconstruction was restricted to a single transverse plane. More modern scanners now include multiple rings, essentially forming a cylinder of detectors.
There are two approaches to reconstructing data from such a scanner:
Treat each ring as a separate entity, so that only coincidences within a ring are detected, the image from each ring can then be reconstructed individually (2D reconstruction)
Allow coincidences to be detected between rings as well as within rings, then reconstruct the entire volume together (3D).
3D techniques have better sensitivity (because more coincidences are detected and used) and therefore less noise, but are more sensitive to the effects of scatter and random coincidences, as well as requiring correspondingly greater computer resources.

24. Source www.nuclearimaging.com.au www.snm.org www.biomedpet.org

25. Thanks For Your Attention