1. Transmission Mechanisms of Monetary Policy
Chapter 25
Transmission Mechanisms of Monetary Policy

2. Transmission Mechanisms of Monetary Policy
How does monetary policy affect aggregate demand (AD)for goods and services and the economy.
Most economist would agree that AD is inversely related to the real interest rate (r) r
AD = C + I + G + NX
Real GDP

3. AD is inversely related to the real interest rate (r)
r↓ => I↑ => AD↑
r↓ => C↑ => AD↑
r↓ = exchange rate↓ => NX↑ = AD ↑

4. Traditional Interest-Rate Channels(the Money View)
Transmission mechanism
Change in the money supply affects interest rates
Interest rates affect investment spending
Investment spending is a component of aggregate spending and production of output
An important feature of the interest-rate transmission mechanism is the emphasis on the real (rather than the nominal) interest rate as the rate that affects consumer and business decisions

5. Traditional Interest-Rate Channels
For monetary policy to affect r, prices must be “sticky” in the short-run.
∆Ms => ∆ i => ∆r
In addition, it is often the real long-term interest rate (not the short-term interest rate) that is viewed as having the major impact on spending
Expectations hypothesis

6. Traditional Interest-Rate Channels
What about i at the zero lower bound?
Monetary policy can affect πe
πe ↑ => r ↓ => I ↑ => AD↑
Fed committing to keep FFR at zero for an extended period of time aimed at affecting inflationary expectations and ST interest rates => expectations hypothesis of term structure

7. Asset Price Channels other than interest rates (The Money View)
In addition to bond prices, two other asset prices receive substantial attention as channels for monetary policy effects:
- foreign exchange rates
- the prices of equities (stocks)

8. Tobin’s q Theory
Theory that explains how monetary policy can affect the economy through its effects on the valuation of equities (stock)
Defines q as the market value of firms divided by the replacement cost of capital
If q is high, the market price of firms is high relative to the replacement cost of capital, and new plant and equipment capital is cheap relative to the market value of firms
Firms issue stock at a “high price” relative to the cost of plant and equipment = > I ↑

9. Tobin’s q Theory
As PB and r↓, expected return on bonds falls relative to stocks => demand for stocks increase => Ps↑
r↓ = Ps↑ => q↑ = I↑ = AD ↑

10. Wealth Effects r↓ = Ps↑ => W↑ = C↑ = AD ↑
Franco Modigliani: An important component of consumers’ lifetime resources is their financial wealth, a major component of which is common stocks
When stock prices rise, the value of financial wealth (W) increases, thereby increasing the lifetime resources of consumers, and consumption should rise
r↓ = Ps↑ => W↑ = C↑ = AD ↑

11. Housing is Equity and Wealth
Tobin’s q Theory applies to housing
Wealth effects also apply to housing.

12. The Credit View Channel of Monetary Policy
The credit view, proposes two types of monetary transmission channels that arise as a result of financial frictions in credit markets: those that operate through effects on bank lending and those that operate through effects on firms’ and households’ balance sheets

13. Credit View Channel
Bank Lending Channel: Banks are in the business of lending and banks play a special role in the financial system because they solve asymmetric information problems in credit markets. Certain borrowers only have access to bank loans.
Bank reserves ↑ => Loans ↑ => I↑ = AD ↑
As banks decline in importance as a source of credit, this “channel” becomes less important.
Bank reluctance to lend has added to slow recovery

14. Credit View Channel
Balance Sheet Channel: Like the bank lending channel, the balance sheet channel arises from the presence of financial frictions in credit markets.
r↓ = Ps↑ => Firm net worth↑ =>
Adverse Selection ↓ => lending ↑ => I↑ => AD ↑

15. Credit View Channel
Cash Flow Channel: another balance sheet channel operates by affecting cash flow, the difference between cash receipts and cash expenditures
i↓ => Firm cash flow ↑ => Adverse Selection ↓
=> lending ↑ => I↑ => AD ↑
Note the focus is on the nominal interest rate, not the real interest rate.

16. The Great Recession
With the advent of the financial crisis in the summer of 2007, the Fed began a very aggressive easing of monetary policy
The economy proved to be weaker than the Fed or private forecasters expected, with the most severe recession in the post-war period beginning in December of 2007
Why did the economy become so weak despite this unusually rapid reduction in the Fed’s policy instrument?

17. The Great Recession
negative effects on the economy from many of the channels we have outlined
With weaker balance sheets, financial institutions began to deleverage and cut back on their lending
adverse selection and moral hazard problems increased in credit markets, lending cut back
Credit spreads also went through the roof with the increase in uncertainty from failures of so many financial markets.