1. Electromagnetic Methods (EM) Measurement of varying electromagnetic fields Induced by transmitter antennas, recorded by receiver antennas Alternative measurement of subsurface conductivity Advantage is no contact electrodes are required EM surveys are faster, and can be carried out from aircraft Useful in a wide range of applications: –Mineral prospecting –Mapping of faults, shear zones –Detection/location of underground pipes, cables –Mapping of conductive contaminants –Mapping of (conductive) clays in agricultural studies

2. Electromagnetic Methods (EM) Basic principle: Transmitter current (Ip) generates primary field (P), which generates ground emf, leading to subsurface “eddy” currents. Subsurface eddy currents then generate a secondary field (S), finally both P and S are measured by the receiver.

3. Sources of time-varying EM fields Natural sources (“Magneto-telluric fields”, or MT) Interaction of solar wind with ionosphere From 10 -5 Hz, up to 20 kHz Low MT frequencies (.001 Hz to 1 Hz) used to investigate upper mantle and lower crust “Audio-magnetotelluric” (AMT) (1-20 kHz) to investigate to 1 – 2 km depth Good at detecting/resolving conductive layers Poor where shallow section is very conductive

4. Sources of time-varying EM fields Controlled MT source: Magnetotelluric signal is weak at certain frequencies, no control on direction Controlled source AMT (CSAMT) uses electric field bipolar transmitter, 10 m to 30 m in length

5. Sources of time-varying EM fields Controlled MT source:

6. Sources of time-varying EM fields “VLF” systems: Source is provided by the US military for communication channels “Very Low Frequency” is actually 15 – 25 kHz (these are high frequencies in geophysical EM) VLF transmitters are located around the world Consist of long, vertical wire carrying AC current Signal from several stations is detectable in most places around the world Local variations in conductivity change the local orientation of the VLF field

7. VLF systems Primary field, P is horizontal where a conductor is present this changes (“tilts”) the total field (P + S) tilt angle survey will “crossover” over a conductor Facing the transmitterSchematic view

8. VLF systems Example of a tilt-angle survey

9. Sources of time-varying EM fields Controlled source systems Time-varying primary EM fields generated by currents in a transmitter loop Receiver coil is physically separated 1 m – several hundred metres Reference signal provided to receiver by cable link Ground systems, airborne systems differ only in scale, principles are the same

10. Sources of time-varying EM fields

11. EM theory: basic quantities  - Dielectric permittivity

12. EM theory: time varying relationships Time varying terms (these were assumed zero in the earlier part of this course)

13. EM theory: time varying relationships

14. Substituting: Basic equations for propagation of EM fields

15. Notes on complex numbers … see course web pages, or your Math textbook

16. Complex numbers

18. Because: Therefore:

19. Complex numbers

20. Multiplication: Division:

21. Complex numbers