1. S Allen 2003 Understanding and Management Of ECG’s

2. S Allen 2003 Contents What is an ECG Basic cardiac electrophysiology The cardiac action potential and ion channels Mechanisms of arrhythmias Tachyarrhythmias Bradyarrhythmias ECG in specific clinical conditions

3. S Allen 2003 What is an ECG The clinical ECG measures the potential differences of the electrical fields imparted by the heart Developed from a string Galvinometer (Einthoven 1900s)

4. S Allen 2003 The Electrocardiograph The ECG machine is a sensitive electromagnet, which can detect and record changes in electromagnetic potential. It has a positive and a negative pole with electrodes extensions from either end. The paired electrodes constitute a lead

5. S Allen 2003 Lead Placements Surface 12 lead ECG Posterior/ Right sided lead extensions Standard limb leads Modified Lewis lead Right atrial/ oesphageal leads

6. S Allen 2003 The Electrical Axis Lead axis is the direction generated by different orientation of paired electrodes

7. S Allen 2003 The Basic Action of the ECG The ECG deflections represent vectors which have both magnitute and direction

8. S Allen 2003 P wave –atrial activation Normal axis -50 to +60 PR interval –Time for intraatrial, AV nodal, and His-Purkinjie conduction Normal duration: 0.12 to 0.20 sec QRS complex –ventricular activation (only 10-15% recorded on surface) Normal axis:-30 to +90 deg Normal duration:<0.12 sec Normal Q wave:<0.04 sec wide <25% of QRS height

9. S Allen 2003 QT interval –Corrected to heart rate (QTc) QTc= QT / ^RR = 0.38-0.42 sec Romano Ward Syndrome

10. S Allen 2003 ST segment –represents the greater part of ventricular repolarization T wave –ventricular repolarization –same axis as QRS complex U wave –uncertain ? negative afterpotential –More obvious when QTc is short

11. S Allen 2003 Clinical uses of ECG Gold standard for diagnosis of arrhythmias Often an independent marker of cardiac disease (anatomical, metabolic, ionic, or haemodynamic) Sometimes the only indicator of pathological process

12. S Allen 2003 Limitationsof ECG Limitations of ECG It does not measure directly the cardiac electrical source or actual voltages It reflects electrical behavior of the myocardium, not the specialised conductive tissue, which is responsible for most arrhythmias It is often difficult to identify a single cause for any single ECG abnormality

13. S Allen 2003 Cardiac Electrophysiology Cardiac cellular electrical activity is governed by multiple transmembrane ion conductance changes 3 types of cardiac cells –1. Pacemaker cells SA node, AV node –2. Specialised conducting tissue Purkinjie fibres –3. Cardiac myocytes

14. S Allen 2003 The Cardiac Conduction Pathway

15. S Allen 2003 The Resting Potential SA node : -55mV Purkinjie cells :-95mV Maintained by: –cytoplasmic proteins –Na+/K+ pump –K+ channels

16. S Allen 2003 The Action Potential Alteration of transmembrane conductance triggers depolarization Unlike other excitatory phenomena, the cardiac action potential has: –prominent plateau phase –spontaneous pacemaking capability

17. S Allen 2003 The Cardiac Action Potential 0 -50 -100 Membrane Potential 4 0 1 2 3 Ca++ influx K+ efflux Na + influx mV 4

18. S Allen 2003 The Transmembrane Currents Phase 0 –Sodium depolarizing inward current (I Na ) –Calcium depolarizing inward current ( I Ca-T ) Phase 1 –Potassium transient outward current (I to ) Phase 2 –Calcium depolarizing inward current (I Ca-L ) –Sodium-calcium exchange (I Na-Ca )

19. S Allen 2003 The Transmembrane Currents Phase 3 –Potassium delayed rectifier current (I k ) slow and fast components (I ks, I kr ) Phase 4 –Sodium pacemaker current (I f ) –Potassium inward rectifier currents (I k1 )

20. S Allen 2003 Cardiac Ion Channels They are transmembrane proteins with specific conductive properties They can be voltage-gated or ligand-gated, or time- dependent They allow passive transfer of Na +, K +, Ca 2+, Cl - ions across cell membranes

21. S Allen 2003 Cardiac Ion Channels: Applications Understanding of the cardiac action potential and specific pathologic conditions –e.g. Long QT syndrome Therapeutic targets for antiarrhythmic drugs –e.g. Azimilide (blocks both components of delayed rectifier K current)

22. S Allen 2003 Refractory Periods of the Myocyte 0 -50 -100 Membrane Potential Absolute R.P. Relative R.P.

23. S Allen 2003 Mechanisms of Arrhythmias: 1 Important to understand because treatment may be determined by its cause 1. Automaticity –Raising the resting membrane potential –Increasing phase 4 depolarization –Lowering the threshold potential e.g. increased sympathetic tone, hypokalamia, myocardial ischaemia

24. S Allen 2003 Mechanisms of Arrhythmias: 2 2. Triggered activity –from oscillations in membrane potential after an action potential –Early Afterdepolarization –Torsades de pointes induced by drugs –Delayed Afterdepolarization –Digitalis, Catecholamines 3. Re-entry –from slowed or blocked conduction –Re-entry circuits may involve nodal tissues or accessory pathways

25. S Allen 2003 Wide Complex Tachycardias Differential Diagnosis Ventricular tachycardia(>80%) Supraventricular tachycardia with(<20%) aberrancy preexisting bundle branch block accessory pathway (bundle of Kent, Mahaim)

26. S Allen 2003 Wide Complex Tachycardias: Diagnostic Approach 1. Clinical Presentation –Previous MI( +ve pred value for VT 98%) –Structural heart disease (+ve pred value for VT 95%) –LV function 2. Provocative measures –Vagal maneuvers –Carotid sinus massage –Adenosine –(Not verapamil)

27. S Allen 2003 Wide Complex Tachycardias: Diagnostic Approach 3. ECG Findings –Capture or fusion beats(VT) –Atrial activity (absence of 1:1 suggests VT) –QRS axis( -90 to +180 suggests VT) –Irregular (SVT) –Concordance –QRS duration –QRS morphology(?old) (? BBB)

28. S Allen 2003 Ventricular Tachycardia with visible P waves

29. S Allen 2003 Surpaventricular Tachycardia with abberancy

30. S Allen 2003 Narrow Complex Tachycardias Differential Diagnosis Sinus tachycardia Atrial fibrillation or flutter Reentry tachycardias AV nodal Atrioventricular(accessory pathway) Intraatrial

31. S Allen 2003 Narrow Complex Tachycardia: Atrial Flutter

32. S Allen 2003 Narrow Complex Tachycardias: Diagnostic Approach 1. Look for atrial activity –presence of P wave –P wave after R wave AV reciprocating or AV nodal reentry 2. Effect of adenosine –terminates most reentry tachycardias –reveals P waves

33. S Allen 2003 Management: the Unstable Tachycardic Patient Signs of the haemodynamically compromised: Hypotension/ heart failure/ end-organ dysfunction Sedate +/- formal anaesthesia (?) DC cardioversion, synchronized, start at 100J If fails, correct pO 2, acidosis, K +, Mg 2+, shock again Start specific anti-arrhythmics e.g. amiodarone 300mg over 5 - 10 min, then 300mg over 1 hour

34. S Allen 2003 Ventricular Tachycardia >3 consecutive ventricular ectopics with rate >100/min Sustained VT (>30 sec) carries poor prognosis and require urgent treatment Accelerated idioventricular rhythm (“slow VT” at 60 - 100/min) require treatment if hypotensive Torsades de pointes or VT - difference in management

35. S Allen 2003 Torsades or Polymorphic VT

36. S Allen 2003 Accelerated Idioventricular Rhythm

37. S Allen 2003 Ventricular Tachycardia: Management 1. Correct electrolyte abnormality / acidosis 2. Lidocaine 100mg loading, repeat if responds, start infusion 3. Magnesium 8 mmol over 20 min 4. Amiodarone 300 mg over 1 hour then 900 mg over 23 hours 5. Synchronized DC shock 6. Over-drive pacing

38. S Allen 2003 Atrial Fibrillation: Management 1. Treat underlying cause e.g. electrolytes, pneumonia, IHD, MVD, PE 2. Anticoagulation 5-7% risk of systemic embolus if over 2 days duration (reduce to <2% with anticoagulation) 3. Cardiovert or Rate control Poor success rate if prolonged AF > 1 year, poor LV, MV stenosis

39. S Allen 2003 Atrial Fibrillation: Cardioversion or Rate Control If < 2 days duration: Cardiovert amiodarone flecainide DC shock If > 2 days duration:Rate control first digoxin B blockers verapamil amiodarone elective DC cardioversion

40. S Allen 2003 Atrial Flutter Rarely seen in the absence of structural heart disease Atrial rate 250 - 350 / min Management DC cardioversion is the most effective therapy Digoxin sometimes precipitates atrial fibrillation Amiodarone is more effective in slowing AV conduction than cardioversion

41. S Allen 2003 MULTIFOCAL ATRIAL TACHYCARDIA (MAT) At least 3 different P wave morphologies Varying PP and PR intervals Most common in COAD/ Pneumonia Managment Treat underlying cause Verapamil is treatment of choice (reduces phase 4 slope) DC shock and digoxin are ineffective

42. S Allen 2003 Multifocal Atrial Tachycardia

43. S Allen 2003 ACCESSORY PATHWAY TACHYCARDIAS –WPW –Mahaim pathway –Lown-Ganong-Levine Syndrome Delta wave is lost during reentry tachycardia AF may be very rapid Management DC shock early Flecainide is the drug of choice Avoid digoxin, verapamil, amiodarone

44. S Allen 2003 Bradyarrhythmias Treat if Symptomatic Risk of asystole –Mobitz type 2 or CHB with wide QRS –Any pause > 3 sec Adverse signs –Hypotension, HF, rate < 40 Management –Atropine iv 600 ug to max 3 mg –Isoprenaline iv –Pacing, external or transvenous

45. S Allen 2003 Complete Heart Block and AF

46. S Allen 2003 What is the cause of the VT?

47. S Allen 2003 Hypokalaemia

48. S Allen 2003 Electrical Alternans - ? Cardiac Tamponade

49. S Allen 2003 Acute Pulmonary Embolism

50. S Allen 2003 Acute Posterior MI (Lateral extension)

51. S Allen 2003 Ventricular Tachycardia (Recent MI)

52. S Allen 2003 Acute Pericarditis

53. S Allen 2003 Thank you for listeningThank you for listening