1. © 2004 Mark D. HillWisconsin Multifacet Project A Future for Parallel Computer Architectures Mark D. Hill Computer Sciences Department University of Wisconsin—Madison Multifacet Project (www.cs.wisc.edu/multifacet)www.cs.wisc.edu/multifacet August 2004 Full Disclosure: Consult for Sun & US NSF

2. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 2 Summary Issues –Moore’s Law, etc. –Instruction Level Parallelism for More Performance –But Memory Latency Longer (e.g., 200 FP multiplies) Must Exploit Memory Level Parallelism –At Thread: Runahead & Continual Flow Pipeline –At Processor: Simultaneous Multithreading –At Chip: Chip Multiprocessing

3. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 3 Outline Computer Architecture Drivers –Moore’s Law, Microprocessors, & Caching Instruction Level Parallelism (ILP) Review Memory Level Parallelism (MLP) Improving MLP of Thread Improving MLP of a Core or Chip CMP Systems

4. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 4 (Technologists) Moore’s Law

5. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 5 What If Your Salary? Parameters –$16 base –59% growth/year –40 years Initially $16  buy book 3 rd year’s $64  buy computer game 16 th year’s $27,000  buy car 22 nd year’s $430,000  buy house 40 th year’s > billion dollars  buy a lot You have to find fundamental new ways to spend money!

6. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 6 Microprocessor First Microprocessor in 1971 –Processor on one chip –Intel 4004 –2300 transistors –Barely a processor –Could access 300 bytes of memory (0.0003 megabytes) Use more and faster transistors in parallel

7. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 7 Other “Moore’s Laws” Other technologies improving rapidly –Magnetic disk capacity –DRAM capacity –Fiber-optic network bandwidth Other aspects improving slowly –Delay to memory –Delay to disk –Delay across networks Computer Implementor’s Challenge –Design with dissimilarly expanding resources –To Double computer performance every two years –A.k.a., (Popular) Moore’s Law

8. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 8 Caching & Memory Hierarchies, cont. VAX-11/780 –1 Instruction = Memory Now –100s Instructions = Memory Caching Applied Recursively –Registers –Level-one cache –Level-two cache –Memory –Disk –(File Server) –(Proxy Cache)

9. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 9 Outline Computer Architecture Drivers Instruction Level Parallelism (ILP) Review –Pipelining & Out-of-Order –Intel P3, P4, & Banias Memory Level Parallelism (MLP) Improving MLP of Thread Improving MLP of a Core or Chip CMP Systems

10. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 10 Instruction Level Parallelism (ILP) 101 Non-Pipelined (Faster via Bit Level Parallelism (BLP)) Pipelined (ILP + BLP; 1st microprocessors RISC) Time   Instrns Time   Instrns

11. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 11 Instruction Level Parallelism 102 SuperScalar (& Pipelined) Add Cache Misses in red Time   Instrns Time   Instrns What if data independent?

12. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 12 Instruction Level Parallelism 103 Out-of-Order (& SuperScalar & Pipelined) In-order fetch, decode, rename, & issuing of instructions with good branch prediction Out-of-order speculative execution of instructions in “window”, honoring data dependencies In-order retirement, preserving sequential instruction semantics Time   Instrns

13. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 13 Out-of-Order Example: Intel x86 P6 Core “CISC” Twist to Out-of-Order –In-order front end cracks x86 instructions into micro-ops (like RISC instructions) –Out-of-order execution –In-Order retirement of micro-ops in x86 instruction groups Used in Pentium Pro, II, & III –3-way superscalar of micro-ops –10-stage pipeline (for branch misprediction penalty) –Sophisticated branch prediction –Deep pipeline allowed scaling for many generations

14. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 14 Pentium 4 Core [Hinton 2001] Follow basic approach of P6 core Trace Cache stores dynamic micro-op sequences 20-stage pipeline (for branch misprediction penalty) 128 active micro-ops (48 loads & 24 stores) Deep pipeline to allow scaling for many generations

15. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 15 Intel Kills Pentium 4 Roadmap Why? I can speculate Too Much Power? –More transistors –Higher-frequency transistors –Designed before power became first-order design constraint Too Little Performance? Time/Program = –Instructions/Program * Cycles/Instruction * Time/Cycle For x86: Instructions/Cycle * Frequency Pent4 Instruction/Cycle loss vs. Frequency gains? Intel moving away from marketing with frequency!

16. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 16 Pentium M / Banias [Gochman 2003] For laptops, but now more general –Key: Feature must add 1% performance for 3% power –Why: Increasing voltage for 1% perf. costs 3% power Techniques –Enhance Intel SpeedStep™ –Shorter pipeline (more like P6) –Better branch predictor (e.g., loops) –Special handling of memory stack –Fused micro-ops –Lower power transistors (off critical path)

17. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 17 What about Future for Intel & Others? Worry about power & energy (not this talk) Memory latency too great for out-of-order cores to tolerate (coming next) Memory Level Parallelism for Thread, Processor, & Chip!

18. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 18 Outline Computer Architecture Drivers Instruction Level Parallelism (ILP) Review Memory Level Parallelism (MLP) –Cause & Effect Improving MLP of Thread Improving MLP of a Core or Chip CMP Systems

19. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 19 Out-of-Order w/ Slower Off-Chip Misses Out-of-Order (& Super-Scalar & Pipelined) But Off-Chip Misses are now hundreds of cycles Time   Instrns Good Case! Time   Instrns

20. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 20 Out-of-Order w/ Slower Off-Chip Misses More Realistic Case Why does yellow instruction block? –Assumes 4-instruction window (maximum outstanding) –Yellow instruction awaits “instruction - 4” (1 st cache miss) –Actual widows are 32-64 instructions, but L2 miss slower Key Insight: Memory-Level Parallelism (MLP) [Chou, Fahs, & Abraham, ISCA 2004] Time   Instrns I1 I2 I3 I4 4-instrn window

21. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 21 Out-of-Order & Memory Level Parallism (MLP) Good Case Bad Case Compute & Memory Phases MLP = 2 MLP = 1

22. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 22 MLP Model MLP = # Off-Chip Accesses / # Memory Phases Execution has Compute & Memory Phases –Compute Phase largely overlaps Memory Phase –In Limit as Memory Latency increases, … Compute Phase hidden by Memory Phase –Execution Time = # Memory Phases * Memory Latency Execution Time = (MLP / # Off-Chip Accesses) * Memory Latency

23. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 23 MLP Action Items Execution Time = (MLP / # Off-Chip Accesses) * Memory Latency Reduce # Off-Chip Accesses –E.g., better caches or compression (Multifacet) Reduce Memory Latency –E.g., on-chip memory controller (AMD) Increase MLP (next slides) Processor changes that don’t affect MLP don’t help!

24. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 24 What Limits MLP in Processor? [Chou et al.] Issue window and reorder buffer size Instruction fetch off-chip accesses Unresolvable mispredicted branches Load and branch issue restrictions Serializing instructions

25. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 25 What Limits MLP in Program? Depending on data from off-chip memory accesses For addresses –Bad: Pointer chasing with poor locality –Good: Array where address calculation separate from data For unpredictable branch decisions –Bad: Branching on data values with poor locality –Good: Iterative loops with highly predictable branching But, as programmer, which accesses go off-chip? Also: very poor instruction locality & frequent system calls, context switches, etc.

26. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 26 Outline Computer Architecture Drivers Instruction Level Parallelism (ILP) Review Memory Level Parallelism (MLP) Improving MLP of Thread –Runahead, Continual Flow Pipeline Improving MLP of a Core or Chip CMP Systems

27. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 27 Runahead Example Base Out-of-Order, MLP = 1 With Runahead, MLP = 2 I1 I2 I3 I4 4-instrn window 1. Normal mode 3. Runahead mode 2. Checkpoint 5. Normal mode (but faster) 4. Restore checkpoint

28. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 28 Runahead Execution [Dundas ICS97, Mutlu HPCA03] 1.Execute normally until instruction M’s off-chip access blocks issue of more instructions 2.Checkpoint processor 3.Discard instruction M, set M’s destination register to poisoned, & speculatively Runahead –Instructions propagate poisoned from source to destination –Seek off-chip accesses to start prefetches & increase MLP 4.Restore checkpoint when off-chip access M returns 5.Resume normal execution (hopefully faster)

29. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 29 Continual Flow Pipeline [ Srinivasan ASPLOS04 ] Simplified Example Have off-chip access M free many resources, but SAVE Keep decoding instructions SAVE instructions dependent on M Execute instructions independent of M When M completes, execute SAVED instructions

30. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 30 Implications of Runahead, & Continual Flow Runahead –Discards dependent instructions –Speculatively executes independent instructions –When miss returns, re-executes dependent & independent instrns Continual Flow Pipeline –Saves dependent instructions –Executes independent instructions –When miss returns, executes only saved dependent instructions Assessment –Both allow MLP to break past window limits –Both limited by branch prediction accuracy on unresolved branches –Continual Flow Pipeline sounds even more appealing –But may not be worthwhile (vs. Runahead) & memory order issues

31. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 31 Outline Computer Architecture Drivers Instruction Level Parallelism (ILP) Review Memory Level Parallelism (MLP) Improving MLP of Thread Improving MLP of a Core or Chip –Core: Simultaneous Multithreading –Chip: Chip Multiprocessing CMP Systems

32. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 32 Getting MLP from Thread Level Parallelism Runahead & Continual Flow seek MLP for Thread More MLP for Processor? –More parallel off-chip accesses for a processor? –Yes: Simultaneous Multithreading More MLP for Chip? –More parallel off-chip accesses for a chip? –Yes: Chip Multiprocessing Exploit workload Thread Level Parallelism (TLP)

33. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 33 Simultaneous Multithreading [U Washington] Turn a physical processor into S logical processors Need S copies of architectural state, S=2, 4, (8?) –PC, Registers, PSW, etc. (small!) Completely share –Caches, functional units, & datapaths Manage via threshold sharing, partition, etc. –Physical registers, issue queue, & reorder buffer Intel calls Hyperthreading in Pentium 4 –1.4x performance for S=2 with little area, but complexity –But Pentium 4 is now dead & no Hyperthreading in Banias

34. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 34 Simultaneous Multithreading Assessment Programming –Supports finer-grained sharing than old-style MP –But gains less than S and S is small Have Multi-Threaded Workload –Hides off-chip latencies better than Runahead –E.g, 4 threads w/ MLP 1.5 each  MLP = 6 Have Single-Threaded Workload –Base SMT No Help –Many “Helper Thread” Ideas Expect SMT in processors for servers Probably SMT even in processors for clients

35. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 35 Want to Spend More Transistors Not worthwhile to spend it all on cache Replicate Processor Private L1 Caches –Low latency –High bandwidth Shared L2 Cache –Larger than if private

36. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 36 Piranha Processing Node Alpha core: 1-issue, in-order, 500MHz CPU Next few slides from Luiz Barosso’s ISCA 2000 presentation of Piranha: A Scalable Architecture Based on Single-Chip Multiprocessing

37. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 37 Piranha Processing Node CPU Alpha core: 1-issue, in-order, 500MHz L1 caches: I&D, 64KB, 2-way D$I$

38. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 38 Piranha Processing Node CPU Alpha core: 1-issue, in-order, 500MHz L1 caches: I&D, 64KB, 2-way Intra-chip switch (ICS) 32GB/sec, 1-cycle delay D$I$ ICS CPU D$I$ CPU D$I$ CPU D$I$ CPU D$I$ CPU D$I$ CPU D$I$ CPU D$I$

39. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 39 Piranha Processing Node CPU Alpha core: 1-issue, in-order, 500MHz L1 caches: I&D, 64KB, 2-way Intra-chip switch (ICS) 32GB/sec, 1-cycle delay L2 cache: shared, 1MB, 8-way D$I$ L2$ ICS CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$

40. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 40 Piranha Processing Node CPU Alpha core: 1-issue, in-order, 500MHz L1 caches: I&D, 64KB, 2-way Intra-chip switch (ICS) 32GB/sec, 1-cycle delay L2 cache: shared, 1MB, 8-way Memory Controller (MC) RDRAM, 12.8GB/sec D$I$ L2$ ICS CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ MEM-CTL 8 banks @1.6GB/sec

41. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 41 Piranha Processing Node CPU Alpha core: 1-issue, in-order, 500MHz L1 caches: I&D, 64KB, 2-way Intra-chip switch (ICS) 32GB/sec, 1-cycle delay L2 cache: shared, 1MB, 8-way Memory Controller (MC) RDRAM, 12.8GB/sec Protocol Engines (HE & RE)  prog., 1K  instr., even/odd interleaving D$I$ L2$ ICS CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ MEM-CTL RE HE

42. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 42 Piranha Processing Node CPU Alpha core: 1-issue, in-order, 500MHz L1 caches: I&D, 64KB, 2-way Intra-chip switch (ICS) 32GB/sec, 1-cycle delay L2 cache: shared, 1MB, 8-way Memory Controller (MC) RDRAM, 12.8GB/sec Protocol Engines (HE & RE):  prog., 1K  instr., even/odd interleaving System Interconnect: 4-port Xbar router topology independent 32GB/sec total bandwidth D$I$ L2$ ICS CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ MEM-CTL RE HE Router 4 Links @ 8GB/s

43. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 43 Piranha Processing Node CPU Alpha core: 1-issue, in-order, 500MHz L1 caches: I&D, 64KB, 2-way Intra-chip switch (ICS) 32GB/sec, 1-cycle delay L2 cache: shared, 1MB, 8-way Memory Controller (MC) RDRAM, 12.8GB/sec Protocol Engines (HE & RE):  prog., 1K  instr., even/odd interleaving System Interconnect: 4-port Xbar router topology independent 32GB/sec total bandwidth D$I$ L2$ ICS CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ L2$ CPU D$I$ MEM-CTL RE HE Router

44. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 44 Simulated Architectures

45. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 45 Piranha’s performance margin 3x for OLTP and 2.2x for DSS Piranha has more outstanding misses  better utilizes memory system Single-Chip Piranha Performance

46. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 46 Chip Multiprocessing Assessment: Servers Programming –Supports finer-grained sharing than old-style MP –But not as fine as SMT (yet) –Many cores can make performance gain large Can Yield MLP for Chip! –Can do CMP of SMT processors –C cores of S-way SMT with T-way MLP per thread –Yields Chip MLP of C*S*T (e.g., 8*2*2 = 32) Most Servers have Multi-Threaded Workload CMP is a Server Inflection Point –Expect >10x performance for less cost Implying, >>10x cost-performance

47. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 47 Chip Multiprocessing Assessment: Clients Most Client (Today) have Single-Threaded Workload –Base CMP No Help –Use Thread Level Speculation? –Use Helper Threads? CMPs for Clients? –Depends on Threads –CMP costs significant chip area (unlike SMT)

48. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 48 Outline Computer Architecture Drivers Instruction Level Parallelism (ILP) Review Memory Level Parallelism (MLP) Improving MLP of Thread Improving MLP of a Core or Chip CMP Systems –Small, Medium, but Not Large –Wisconsin Multifacet Token Coherence

49. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 49 Small CMP Systems Use One CMP (with C cores of S-way SMT) –C starts 2-4 and grows to 16-ish –S starts at 2, may stay at 2 or grow to 4 –Fits on your desk! Directly Connect CMP (C) to Memory Controller (M) or DRAM If Threads Useful –>10X Performance vs. Uniprocesor –>>10X Cost-Performance vs. non-CMP SMP Commodity Server! MCC

50. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 50 Medium CMP Systems Use 2-16 CMPs (with C cores of S-way SMT) –Small: 4*4*2 = 32 –Large: 16*16*4 = 1024 Connect CMPs & Memory Controllers (or DRAM) CC CC MM MM Processor-Centric MM MM CC CC Memory-Centric MM CC MM CC Dance Hall

51. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 51 Large CMP Systems? 1000s of CMPs? Will not happen in the commercial market –Instead will network CMP systems into clusters –Enhance availability & reduces cost –Poor latency acceptable Market for large scientific machines probably ~$0 Billion Market for large government machines similar –Nevertheless, government can make this happen (like bombers) The rest of us will use –a small- or medium-CMP system –A cluster of small- or medium-CMP systems

52. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 52 Wisconsin Multifacet (www.cs.wisc.edu/multifacet)www.cs.wisc.edu/multifacet Designing Commercial Servers Availability: SafetyNet Checkpointing [ISCA 2002] Programability: Flight Data Recorder [ISCA 2003] Methods: Simulating a $2M Server on a $2K PC [Computer 2003] Performance: Cache Compression [ISCA 2004] Simplicity & Performance: Token Coherence (next)

53. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 53 Token Coherence [IEEE MICRO Top Picks 03] Coherence Invariant (for any memory block at any time): –One writer or multiple readers Implemented with distributed Finite State Machines Indirectly enforced (bus order, acks, blocking, etc.) Token Coherence Directly Enforces –Each memory block has T tokens –Token count store with data (even in messages) –Processor needs all T tokens to write –Processor needs at least one token to read Last year: Glueless Multiprocessor –Speedup 17-54% vs directory This Year: Medium CMP Systems –Flat for correctness –Hierarchical for performance

54. Wisconsin Multifacet Project © 2004 Mark D. Hill 54 Conclusions Must Exploit Memory Level Parallelism! At Thread: Runahead & Continual Flow Pipeline At Processor: Simultaneous Multithreading At Chip: Chip Multiprocessing Talk to be filed : Google Mark Hill > Publications > 2004