1. City of Beaverton High Impact Business Writing
CLIMB Center for Advancement
Portland Community College
Facilitated by George Knox

2. Overview of Workshop Modules
Pre-Writing Analysis
Organization, Style & Diction
Strategies for Specific Documents
Proofreading, Revising & Editing

3. Perception Studies show that we all have preferred “perceptual styles”
Presenter’s preferences may be different than audience’s
Effective perception combines styles

4. Perceptual Styles (Adapted from Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model)
Auditory
Focuses on what is heard
Remembers 75% heard
Distracted by note-taking
Visual
Focuses on what is seen
Remembers 75% seen
Summarizes with notes
Tactile
Focuses on what is touched and manipulated
Remembers by touching
Takes both traditional and visual notes
Kinesthetic
Focuses on moving within contextual environment
Remembers by doing

5. Perceptual Styles (Cont.)
Perceptual styles are only preferences
Most people utilize more than one style
Most people can learn to use different styles SO
Recognize your preference, but learn to use the style(s) that work best for each situation
Prepare your documents with audience’s perceptual styles (multiple) in mind

6. Document Development P.A.T. Purpose Audience Technique
Purpose and Audience Determine Technique!

7. P. A. T. Purpose Audience Technique Topic
Goals (Inform,persuade, entertain, record, cite, respond, etc.)
Requirements (Schedule, materials, budget, tools, delivery, etc.)
Audience
Who? Multiple audiences?
Expectations (Content, style, delivery, etc.)
Requirements
Technique

8. Document Design: Focus
“The Rule of Ones”
One idea per sentence
One topic sentence per paragraph
One thesis/main point per document

9. Document Design: Format
Informative
Intro of problem
Main point
Details
Summary (restating main point)
Persuasive
Intro of problem
Main point
Supports
Summary
Request for action
Instructional
Intro of problem
Steps in sequential order
Sources of further help

10. Document Design: Flow Front load vs. back load Roadmap
Statement of purpose
Overview of content
Signposts (Text)
Transitional phrases and words
Cues (Visual)
Visual elements guiding reader
Headings, highlighted text, dividers, white space
Chunking (Grouping related elements)
Parallel form

11. Document Design: Graphics
Integrate graphics into text
See Tips for Using Visuals
Maintain a graphic theme
Generally do not use clip art or extraneous graphics for formal documents
Follow corporate/publication guidelines
Adhere to copyright law

12. Document Design: Other Issues
Headings, spacing, pagination, type
Titles, length, submission
Documentation of sources
All of these are dependent upon the publisher and style guide

13. Formatting Text 10-12 point type (body text) Serif vs. San Serif
Consistent type styles (“Magic 3”)
Bold/italics to emphasize
Avoid all capitals
Ragged right – justified left margins
Text boxes, large size, color for emphasis

14. Style: Business vs. Technical
Business Writing:
Purposeful
Persuasive
Flexible
Economical
Reader-focused
Technical Writing:
Purposeful
Informative
Structured
Economical
Product/process-focused

15. Style: Business Writing
Strategies:
Gain attention early
Clarify benefits to readers
Always include a “request for action”
Front load a positive message
Back load a negative message
Use keywords
Explain technical or unfamiliar terms
Prepare for multiple audiences
Avoid conversational and narrative styles
Consider multiple modes of delivery

16. Style: Technical Writing
Strategies:
Design document to be “used” rather than “read”
Provide for document navigation
Front load most technical documents
Use appropriate technical & industry terms including acronyms
Use technical graphics whenever possible
Create distinct document sections based on use
Provide necessary caution and warning messages
Prepare document for use within technical setting
Consider multiple modes of delivery

17. Style: Proper Citation
Use the correct style
(Academic/industry standard, in-house guide, editor/reader preference)
Document your sources in progress
Take notes with source info
Place citations/short-cuts in drafts
Proofread for citations
Citations matched with sources?
Correct style and punctuation?

18. Diction (Word Choice and Order)
Diction affects:
Meaning
Tone
Emphasis

19. Diction: Barriers to Meaning
Misused words
See Commonly Confused Words
Nonspecific nouns
Area, factor, issue, problem, thing
Slang, regional expressions, figures of speech, inappropriate jargon
Euphemisms, pretentious language
Adult language, collateral damage, disadvantaged, economic downturn, pre-owned, rightsizing
Sexist language

20. Diction: Barriers to Tone
Inappropriate level of formality
Contractions and acronyms
Slang, jargon, figures of speech
Proper or strict language
I’d like to get that info you’ve got posted on your web page. VS. I would like a copy of the information posted on your web site.
Improper connotation
Images and emotions associated with a word or phrase
The details he gave were fictional. VS. The details he gave were not factual. VS. The details he gave were incorrect.
Figures of speech, clichés

21. Diction: Barriers to Emphasis
Multiple terms for same subject
First term has emphasis and sets tone
My client is innocent. I am confident that the jury will find him not guilty due to insufficient evidence.
Active vs. passive voice
Focus on actor or result
The company laid off 300 workers. VS. Three hundred workers were laid off by the company.
Front load vs. back load

22. Diction: Editing and Revising
Consider PAT
Proof for meaning, tone and emphasis
Default to direct meaning and formal tone (unless writing personal narratives and correspondence)
Generally avoid jargon and slang
Check a dictionary and/or thesaurus

23. Diction: Editing and Revising
Consider the following statements:
Your client is responsible for the accident.
Your client caused the accident.
Your client is liable for the accident.
What is the meaning of each sentence?
What is the connotation for each sentence?
Where is the emphasis in each sentence?

24. Liability Issues: Risks
“Technical” Liability
Negligence
Breach of Warranty
“Strict Liability in Tort(e)”
Marketing Liability
“Uniform Commercial Code”
Expressed Warranty of Description
Other Areas of Liability
Privacy
Financial
Employment

25. Liability Issues: Protections
Accuracy
Check for clear interpretations and findings
Do not suppress knowledge or data
Do not exaggerate claims or data
Ownership
Confirm copyright, trademarks, etc.
Public Domain
Most documents by public officials are in public domain (w/ legal/privacy exceptions)
Consider documents as “published”

26. Liability Issues: Avoiding Problems
Be accurate (factual, precise)
Know your audience
Needs and expectations
Abilities (“reasonable person”)
Risk
Document your work
Sources/Citations
Paper trail
Data records
Copies of correspondence
Get approval of your work
“Sign off”
Feedback from peers
Practical test with target audience
Use waivers/consent forms

27. Memo and E-mail Purpose Written record (paper or electronic)
Information re: policies and procedures
Request for internal action
Documentation of decisions or actions
“Paper trail”

28. Memo and E-mail Audience Internal (usually)
Individual, departmental or company-wide
Knowledge of company organization, values, policies, procedures, etc.
Familiar with jargon and acronyms
Attention to internal communications?
Note: is becoming more common for external communications

29. Technique: Memos & E-mail
Procedure and Information Messages
Request and Reply Messages
Confirmation (or Denial) Messages
Other?

30. Procedure/Information Message
Routine messages
“Downward” flow
Informational in nature
Goal of employee participation and cooperation
Direct or indirect depending on nature of message (good news, bad news, etc.)
Tip: Tone is important for success.

31. Request and Reply Messages
Request for information and action
Persuasive in nature
Direct or indirect depending on nature of request and source of request
Reply to previous communication
Direct response to initiator
Indirect response to wider audience

32. Confirmation Messages
“Incident” or “To File” reports
Documentation of decisions, directives, and discussions
Names and titles of people involved
Major issues described
Request for confirmation of receipt
Direct message

33. Technique: Strategies
Headings: Date, To, From, Subject
Single topic
Conciseness
Conversational tone
“Cues” and “Signposts”

34. Technique: Strategies
Direct vs. Indirect message
Direct (“Front loaded”) message places main point early in the document
Indirect (“Back loaded”) message places main point late in the document
Use direct approach for “good” news or when acceptance is assured
Use indirect approach for “bad” news or when persuasion is necessary

35. Techniques: Delivery
Memos – Use standard in-house delivery unless otherwise requested
Use in-house standards (company vs. personal web-based , stationary, HTML vs. text only, etc.) within company
Contact outside audiences for restrictions
Avoid common mistakes

36. Common E-mail Mistakes
Address errors
Long messages or attachments
Misleading or vague subject lines
Inappropriate content
Lack of discretion in responses
Inappropriate copying and forwarding
Source: John Edwards, “The Six Most Common Mistakes in Sending ”, Bottom Line Business, October 1997.

37. Letters Purpose Written record (Paper)
Formal information, persuasive or responsive communication
Documentation with “wet” signature
“Official” communication with letterhead
Contractual agreement
“Paper trail”

38. Letters Audience External (usually)
May be unfamiliar with internal organization, values, procedures, etc.
May be unfamiliar with jargon and acronyms
May be inattentive to communication
Seeking formal or “official” message

39. Technique: Kinds of Letters
Routine Letters
Request for information and action
Direct reply
Good News
Approved request
Commendation/Recommendation
Bad News Letters
Denied request
Criticism/disciplinary action/termination
Persuasive Letters
Sales -Proposals

40. Technique: Strategies
Single topic
Formal style and tone
“Official” letterhead and signature
“Cues” and “Signposts”
Request for action

41. Technique: Strategies
Direct vs. Indirect message
“Front load” Routine and Good News Letters
“Back load” Bad News Letters
For Persuasive Letters, use the message that best fits the audience
Tip: If cost is involved, you probably should “back load”.

42. Communicating Bad News
Goals
Make the audience understand and accept
Maintain positive image of organization
Make message clear so additional communication is unnecessary
Avoid creating legal liability

43. Communicating Bad News
Strategies
Indirect message
Buffer with a neutral or positive opening
Give reasons or causes for bad news
Clearly state bad news, providing alternatives or “next steps” if possible
Close with a personal, future-looking statement
Tip: Use subordinating or passive language (“Although your claim cannot be processed under current guidelines, we can provide a list of alternative ….”)

44. Communicating Bad News
Strategies
Avoiding Liability
Do not use abusive language (defamation) or careless language implying liability
Do not state or imply views that run contrary to your organization
Do not admit or imply responsibility without checking with legal counsel
Do not use “official” documents or equipment to communicate your personal views

45. Persuasive Writing Strategies: Gain attention
Review problem and state action taken
Stimulate a question and offer an answer
State a benefit to the audience
Build interest
Offer strong supports
Suggest direct and indirect benefits
Avoid emotionality

46. Persuasive Writing Strategies: Reduce resistance
Counter possible arguments
Demonstrate credibility
Motivate action
Request specific action and repeat benefits
Reinforce business relationship

47. Technical Formats
Instructions
Reports
Executive Summaries

48. Instructions Purpose Audience
Technical documentation of a specific task
Directive with sequential steps
“Used” during task
Audience
Varying technical abilities
“Users”, not readers
May need hazard statements

49. Technique: Document Types
User Manual (Step-by-step for novice)
Tutorial (Mini-lessons for novice)
Reference Manual (Indexed for expert)
Quick Reference Guide (Indexed for expert)
Procedural Guide (Step-by-step for novice & expert, Primarily to document)
Policy Manual (Categorized for novice & expert, Primarily to document)
On-Line Documentation (Tree structures/topics for novice & expert)

50. Technique: Basic Format
Introduction
Required materials/tools
Sequential steps
Additional resources

51. Technique: Strategies
Keep language simple and direct
2nd person imperative
Appropriate technical language
Active voice
Avoid future tense
Industry standards (e.g. ANSI)

52. Technique: Strategies
List steps sequentially
Numbered lists for ordered tasks
Bulleted lists for unordered tasks
Vertical lists usually easier to read than horizontal lists
Introduce steps or groups of steps (e.g. “To install the software, follow these steps:”)

53. Technique: Strategies
Emphasize tasks over results (user’s actions before reactions)
Describe any necessary parts, tools or equipment BEFORE giving directions
Include visuals when appropriate (especially for “visual perceivers” and international readers)

54. Technique: Hazard Statements
Place warnings before and near the hazardous task listed
Highlight warning w/ appropriate visual techniques (symbols, colors, bold, etc.)
Keep hazard statements direct, clear and accurate
Follow expected/required guidelines

55. Reports Purpose Audience Document primary or secondary research
Aid decisions, qualify sources and record work or activities
Audience
Expects summaries, methods, findings
May expect recommendations
Data may be scrutinized
Multiple audiences?

56. Technique: Basic Format
Front Matter
Cover
Title page
Abstract
Table of contents
List of figures and tables
Executive summary

57. Technique: Basic Format (cont.)
Introduction
Definition & scope of problem
Background
Methodology
Report organization

58. Technique: Basic Format (cont.)
Body
Project details (Data, method review)
Conclusion (Analysis of findings)
Recommendations
Notes

59. Technique: Basic Format (cont.)
Back Matter
Appendices
Glossary
Bibliography/References/Works Cited
Resume/Vitae
Index

60. Technique: Strategies
Primary research
Clear description of methodology
Summary of data gathered (in body)
Access to full data (usually Appended)
Cross references to other research
Secondary sources used in Background to add credibility

61. Technique: Strategies
Secondary research
Verify your sources with clear documentation
Explain/describe sources as necessary
Use citation style as required or expected

62. Executive Summary Purpose Audience Introduce document
Give synopsis of contents
Persuade reader of validity and importance of document
Audience
Multiple audiences: technical and non-technical
Expect summary of major points and findings
May be read as “stand alone” document

63. Technique: Basic Format
Mini-document
Organize around major sections of full document
Condense material into suitable length
“Brochure”
Highlight major sections most relevant to non-technical audience
Categorize and order by importance to audience

64. Technique: Strategies
Length: Usually 1 page, but could be longer (1/16th rule?)
Highlight major sections with headings, bulleted lists, graphics, page design (e.g. multi-column), etc.
Language: Use key words and concepts, Explain technical terms and acronyms
Do NOT “cut and paste” or “summarize by list”

65. Proofreading Purpose: Locate and mark errors and needed changes in a document.
Proof at least twice
Content (purpose, meaning, accuracy, emphasis, tone)
Mechanics (grammar, spelling, punctuation, style, document design)
Mark errors, don’t fix them
Organize your approach to proofing
Proof in “chunks”
Read silently and aloud
Checklist?

66. Proofreading Tips Accept that most drafts are not perfect
Plan/schedule for proofreading
Proof electronically AND hard copy
Proofread multiple times
Read your document aloud
Have someone else proofread
Practice proofreading
AND …

67. Proofreading Tips (Cont.)
Organize your proofreading:
Proof in sections. Complete a section before moving on.
Proof for revision first. Make revisions. Then proof for editing.
Proof general to specific (Paragraph – Sentence – Word – Punctuation)
Read backwards (especially for editing)

68. Proofreading for Revision Purpose: Check content and order for clarification or restatement
Read for overview
Determine purpose of the document
Find the main point or thesis
Find the evidence or details
Check paragraph order and “weight”
Proof paragraphs for relevance and flow
Repeat as necessary

69. Proofreading for Editing Purpose: Find sentence-level problems and mechanical errors
Proofread again after revising content
Check your problem areas first
Find topic sentences before supports
Ensure 1 topic sentence per paragraph
Check spelling separate from grammar
Use but don’t trust writing assistants

70. Proofreading for Grammar (Sentence Level)
When proofing and editing, focus on meaning and clarity
Know your grammatical weaknesses, and check those first
Read a sentence aloud to confirm “verbal grammar”
Look for shifts in voice, person and tense
Identify subject, predicate, clauses and phrases within a sentence
Quickly cover the basics:
Complete sentences (and ideas)
Agreement between elements
Clear and appropriate modifying phrases
Correct punctuation
Use the writing assistants to find likely errors (but check again for yourself)
Keep a good grammar guide handy

71. Revising Strategies Focus Content Point of View
Clarify introduction of main “thesis”
Check for competing ideas
Delete unnecessary text
Content
Emphasize main ideas
Add facts, details, examples, definitions
Rethink central argument/insight
Point of View
Maintain consistency
Change POV?

72. Revising Strategies (Cont.)
Organization
Add/sharpen topic sentences
Move blocks of text
Re-paragraph
Audience Appeal
Use appropriate tone/language
Let the readers know why they are reading
Motivate the readers to read on
The “Rule of Ones”

73. Editing Strategies: Movement
Check paragraphs
Topic sentence followed by support sentences
Transitional sentences/phrases
Arrange paragraphs appropriately
Time (chronological, narrative, process)
Space (descriptive, setting)
Dramatic (build to climax, back load)
Logic (argument, essay)
Link ideas

74. Editing Strategies: Linking Ideas
Use key words
Repetition
Variety
Maintain parallel structures
Similar info presented in similar ways
“Visual” balance
Check for consistent style
Between paragraphs/chapters/sections
Subject identity
Perspective

75. Editing Strategies: Transitions
Use “roadmap” sentences/paragraphs
Choose appropriate phrases
Addition (and, also, further, in addition to, moreover, next, too)
Compare (also, in the same manner, in this way, like, likewise, similarly)
Contrast (although, but, even though, however, in contrast, nevertheless, still)
Summary (In conclusion, in other words, in short, therefore, to sum up)
Relation [time, order, place] (after, as, during, finally, later, when, first, second, next, last, above, beyond, farther on, near, opposite)
Logic (as a result, consequently, if, since, so, therefore, thus)

76. Editing Strategies: Sentence Level
Correct grammar
Sentence fragments
Run-on sentence (fused, comma splice)
Subject-Verb agreement
Pronoun references and agreement
Misused modifiers
Active vs. passive voice
Correct spelling and punctuation

77. Also Consider … Utilizing a peer review
Testing documents on sample audiences
Requesting feedback from target audience(s)
Developing measurements of effectiveness
Rotating assignments to assess strengths and weaknesses of writing staff
Group writing for projects

78. On-line Materials
Web Page:
Access through City of Beaverton IntraWeb
Handouts, Additional Resources, Samples
Suggestions for Additional Materials?