1. Unit 1: Cellular Energetics
Part I – Macromolecules
Part II – Enzymes
Part III – Cellular Respiration
Part IV – DNA Replication
Part V – Protein Synthesis

2. Part I – Macromolecules

3. The questions: What are monomers? What are polymers?
How are polymers synthesized (built) and hydrolyzed (broken down)?

4. Dehydration Synthesis (condensation)
Reaction that joins molecules together by removing water
Polymerization = the synthesis of a polymer
Polymers are built from monomers via dehydration synthesis

5. Hydrolysis
Breaks polymers into their constituent monomers (“building blocks”) by lysing (breaking) bonds through the addition of water.

6. 1. Carbohydrates (polysaccharides)
Contain CHO
General molecular formula = CH2O
Aldoses and Ketoses vary in location of carbonyl group -C=O
Aldoses have carbonyl on ends (glucose)
Ketoses have carbonyl within molecule (fructose)

7. Monomer = monosaccharide

8. Disaccharides (double sugars)
2 monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage
Covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis

9. Examples of disaccharides
Maltose = glucose + glucose
Sucrose = glucose + fructose
Lactose = glucose + galactose

10. Polysaccharides (many sugars)
Long polymers of many monosaccharides
Architecture & function determined by position of glycosidic linkages
Alpha linkages are breakable by Eukaryotes
Starch, glycogen
Beta linkages are NOT
Cellulose, chitin

12. Types of Polysaccharides
A. Structural polysaccharides:
Beta glycosidic linkages
Cellulose - plant cell walls, structural molecule
Chitin - exoskeleton in insects, arachnids, crustaceans

13. B. Food storage molecules
Alpha glycosidic linkages
Starch- food storage molecules in plants
Glycogen- food storage molecules in animals

14. 2. Lipids Group shares one common trait – no affinity for water
Do NOT consist of monomers → polymers
Highly varied group
Biologically important:
Fats
Phospholipids
Steriods

15. A. Fats Made of glycerol and 3 fatty acids
Saturated fatty acids (animal fats) are carbon chains with single bonds only
Ex: Butter, lard; solids at room temp.
Unsaturated fatty acids (plant fats) have at least one double bond (kinks in chain)
Monounsaturated = only one double bond
Polyunsaturated = many double bonds
Ex: Vegetable oils; liquid at room temp

16. “Hydrogenated” fatty acids
Hydrogen is artificially added to replace double bonds with single bonds.
Liquids are solidified
Ex: peanut butter, margarine

18. B. Phospholipids
2 fatty acids (tails) attached to phosphate group “head”
When placed in water they self assemble into a micelle

20. C. Steroids
Lipids characterized by carbon skeletons consisting of four fused rings
Ex. Cholesterol
Common component of animal cell membranes (this is why animal meat is higher in cholesterol)
Precursor from which other steroids, including sex hormones, are synthesized

22. 3. Proteins Most diverse of all macromolecules
Humans have over twenty thousand proteins in their bodies, each performing a specific function

23. General Categories of Proteins
1) Structural: Spider silk
2) Storage : Egg white
3) Transport: Hemoglobin
4) Hormonal: Insulin
5) Receptor: Transport protein
6) Contractile: Actin & myosin
7) Defensive: Antibodies
8) Enzymatic: Digestive enzymes

24. Monomers = Amino Acids 20 total amino acids
8 “essential” AA’s; must be derived from food
12 can be synthesized by body
THREE TYPES
Non-polar (8)
Polar (7)
Electrically charged (acidic, basic) (5)

25. General structure of amino acid
All amino acids have a carboxyl group (-COOH) on one end and an amino group (NH3) on the other
R group determines their interactions with one another to form secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure

27. Polymers = polypeptides
Formed by dehydration synthesis
Peptide bonds: bonds between adjacent amino acids

28. Protein shape determines function
Primary structure: sequence of amino acids

29. Secondary Structure: coiling or folding of polypeptide chain in repeated patterns
Ex: Alpha helices
Ex: Beta pleated sheets

30. Tertiary structure: irregular contortions from interactions between side chains (R-groups) with one another
H-bonds
Disulfide bridges
Hydrophobic interactions

31. Quaternary structure: 2 or more polypeptide chains aggregated into 1 functional molecule

33. 4. Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are the building blocks of both DNA and RNA
DNA directs its own replication, transmits genetic information to future offspring, and controls RNA synthesis
RNA controls protein synthesis

34. Nucleotides

35. Monomer = Nucleotides Nucleotide - building block of nucleic acids
Composed of three subunits:
1) Pentose sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)
2) Phosphate groups comprise the “sugar- phosphate” backbone
3) Nitrogenous bases = variable portions of the molecule

36. DNA vs. RNA

37. Polymer = polynucleotide
Adjacent nucleotides are joined by covalent bonds called phosphodiester linkages between the -OH on one nucleotide and the phosphate on the next nucleotide

39. Complementary Base Pairing
Always a Pyrimidine with a Purine
Purines are Adenine & Guanine
Pyrimidines are Cytosine, Thymine (DNA only), and Uracil (RNA only)

41. Complementary Base Pairing

42. Why Do Bases Bond This Way?
Hydrogen bonds:
A and T form two hydrogen bonds
G and C form three hydrogen bonds
Therefore, there is no way to bond inappropriately

43. Base Pairing T A

44. Base Pairing C G

45. Macro Structure of DNA
Double Helix- “Twisted Ladder” of A-T and G-C base pairing
DNA contains genes (thousands) that code for proteins
In association with proteins (histones) DNA makes chromosomes (46 in humans)
Stored in nuclei of Eukaryotic cells