1. Chemical Basis of Life Chapter 2 Bio 160

2. Atoms Atoms – smallest complete unit of an element Neutrons (neutral) Electrons (-) Protons (+)

3. Atoms –Nucleus of an atom is comprised of neutrons and protons and therefore has a + charge; electrons (-) are attracted to the nucleus and move around the nucleus in specific areas of space called shells 1 st shell – holds 2 e - 2 nd shell – holds 8 e - 3 rd shell – holds 8 e -

4. Elements Elements – consist of only one kind of atom arranged in periodic table by symbols, along with atomic number and weight – Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons (in a neutral atom) atomic number determines which element is in question

5. Elements – Atomic weight = number of protons + number of neutrons (mass (weight) of protons or neutrons is 1840 x larger than that of e-) – Isotopes - elements with the same # of protons but a varying # of neutrons, ie, element with the same atomic number but a different atomic weight

6. Elements atomic weights are not whole numbers, but merely an average of all isotopes of an element unstable isotopes emit energetic particles and are known as radioisotopes – All elements with atomic number > 84 are radioactive but these elements are not normally present in biological material

7. Molecules & Compounds Molecules - chemical combination of 2 or more atoms of one or more elements bonded together by chemical bonds (atoms don't have to be different) (H 2 is a molecule as is H 2 O) Compounds - 2 or more different elements joined together

8. Chemical Bonding Electrons are the part of an atom that actively participates in a chemical reaction (never the nucleus ) Octet rule: atoms react with one another to achieve 8 e- in outer shell (except 1st shell) Chemical behavior of atoms can be explained by behavior of electrons

9. Chemical Bonding Atoms with fewer than 8 electrons in outer shell may transfer or share electrons to complete outer shell Ions - atoms that are electrically charged either by gaining or losing electrons When atoms react with one another they are attracted to each other by chemical bonds

10. Types of Chemical Bonding Ionic bond – formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another; the bond is therefore the electrical attraction between 2 oppositely charged ions compounds containing ionic bonds readily separate (dissociate) into ions in water and are called electrolytes because as charged particles they can conduct an electric current examples of electrolytes are acids, bases, and salts

11. Types of Chemical Bonding if outer shell has 1,2, or 3 e -, the atoms tend to lose the electron and become + ions = cations if outer shell has 6 or 7 e -, the atoms tend to gain electrons and become - ions = anions if outer shell has 4 or 5 e -, they don't tend to form ions; they tend to share electrons and form covalent bonds

12. Types of Chemical Bonding Covalent bond – results from sharing electrons; atoms with 4 or 5 electrons in outer shell tend to share electrons and will not form ions; therefore covalent compounds tend to be nonelectrolytes Carbon has 4 electrons in outer shell and needs 4 more electrons More compounds of carbon than any other element

13. Types of Chemical Bonding – Nonpolar covalent - equal sharing of electrons; no charged regions water is a good example of a polar covalent compound – Polar Covalent - electrons are not equally shared; results in charged regions

14. Types of Chemical Bonding Hydrogen bonds - weak attraction between a slightly + hydrogen and a slightly - oxygen or nitrogen H bonds can be between molecules (intermolecular; as in water) or within molecules (intramolecular; as in DNA and protein) H bonds are significantly weaker than covalent or ionic bonds

15. Chemical Reactions Chemical Reactions – the making and breaking of chemical bonds – Reactants – starting materials in a reaction – Products – ending materials in a reaction

16. Types of Chemical Reactions Synthesis - reactions that consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones Decomposition - reactions that break down complex molecules into simpler compounds Exchange reactions Reversible reactions

17. Acids and Bases Acids - substances that release H + in water Bases - release OH - or accept H + pH - measure of H + concentration Salts - strong acid + strong base→ salt and H 2 O

18. Organic Compounds Organic compounds - any substance that contains both carbon and hydrogen monomer + monomer → polymer + H 2 O (dehydration synthesis = condensation) polymer + H 2 O → monomer + monomer (digestion reaction = hydrolysis) –Polymer - long chain of a repeating molecular unit

19. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates (contain C, H, O) = sugars and starches most abundant group of organic compounds provides most readily available source of energy short term storage of energy

20. Carbohydrates  Hexose - 6 carbon sugar  Pentose - 5 carbon sugar - ribose/deoxyribose of RNA/DNA –Monosaccharides  glucose - most abundant hexose  galactose  fructose

21. Carbohydrates – Disaccharides - Monomer + Monomer = disaccharide Sucrose – Table sugar Lactose - Milk

22. Carbohydrates –Polysaccharides  Starches - principal storage polysaccharide in plants; ex) potatoes, rice, grain  Glycogen - principal storage polysaccharide in animals

23. Lipids - all tend to be insoluble in water

24. Lipids –glycerol (monomer) + 3 fatty acids(monomers)→triglyceride  saturated fats – all bonding sites of the fatty acid are filled with hydrogen  unsaturated fats - some double bonds present so not all bonding sites are filled with hydrogen and the fatty acid has a kink in its shape, preventing solidification Triglycerides (fats) - largest of class of lipids

25. Lipids Phospholipids - in cell membranes and membranes of organelles –consists of glycerol + 2 fatty acids + phosphate group (- charge) fatty acid tail - hydrophobic = insoluble in water phosphate head - hydrophilic = soluble in water –phospholipids are arranged as a bilayer with phosphate heads toward water (outside of bilayer in contact with aqueous solutions inside and outside the cell) and the fatty acid tails toward the interior of the membrane

26. Lipids Steroids cholesterol (precursor from which most other steroids are synthesized) sex hormones - estrogen, progesterone, testosterone cortisol and aldosterone Vitamin D and bile salts

27. Proteins Protein - most abundant organic molecule in organism (makes up 50% of dry weight) Monomer = amino acid; polymer = protein (polypeptide chain) Proteins - contain C, H, O, N and some S Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds (covalent bonds)

28. Proteins Proteins have four levels of structure which contribute to their unique three-dimensional shape, or conformation Denaturation - Proteins lose their conformation, hence their function, due to exposure to heat, radiation, electricity, pH changes, or various chemicals

29. Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA –pentose sugar (5-carbon monosaccharide) = ribose/deoxyribose –phosphate group monomer = nucleotide –nitrogenous base