1. Chapter 8 Welcome to the Solar System

2. 8.1 The Search for Origins Our goals for learning What properties of our solar system must a formation theory explain? What theory best explains the features of our solar system?

3. What properties of our solar system must a formation theory explain? 1.Patterns of motion of the large bodies Orbit in same direction and plane 2.Existence of two types of planets Terrestrial and jovian 3.Existence of smaller bodies Asteroids and comets 4.Notable exceptions to usual patterns Rotation of Uranus, Earth ’ s moon, backward rotation of Venus, backward orbit of Triton around Neptune, etc.

4. What theory best explains the features of our solar system? The nebular theory states that our solar system formed from the gravitational collapse of a giant interstellar gas cloud—the solar nebula (Nebula is the Latin word for cloud) Imanual Kant and Pierre-Simon, Marquis de Laplace proposed the nebular hypothesis over two centuries ago A large amount of evidence now supports this idea

5. Close Encounter Hypothesis A rival idea proposed that the planets formed from debris torn off the Sun by a close encounter with another star. That hypothesis could not explain observed motions and types of planets. This theory is now only used as a foil to the Nebular Hypothesis

6. What have we learned? What properties of our solar system must a formation theory explain? –Motions of large bodies –Two types of planets, terrestrial like and gas giant like –Asteroids and comets –Notable exceptions like Earth ’ s moon What theory best explains the features of our solar system? –Nebular theory states that solar system formed from a large interstellar gas cloud.

7. 8.2 The Birth of the Solar System Our goals for learning Where did the solar system come from? What caused the orderly patterns of motion in our solar system?

8. Where did the solar system come from? This picture is the star forming region the great Orion nebula.

9. Galactic Recycling Elements that formed planets were made in stars and then recycled through interstellar space. So you are made of the dust of exploded stars that lived and died before our solar system was formed. You are star stuff!

10. Evidence from Other Gas Clouds We can see stars forming in other interstellar gas clouds, lending support to the nebular theory

11. What caused the orderly patterns of motion in our solar system?

13. Conservation of Angular Momentum Rotation speed of the cloud from which our solar system formed must have increased as the cloud contracted. Very important after all your professor gets to be called Doctor because his Ph.D. dissertation is titled “ Star Formation, Using 3- D Explicit Eulerian Hydrodynamics ” Star Formation, Using 3- D Explicit Eulerian Hydrodynamics

14. Rotation of a contracting cloud speeds up for the same reason a skater speeds up as she pulls in her arms

15. Collisions between particles in the cloud caused it to flatten into a disk Flattening

16. Collisions between gas particles in cloud gradually reduce random motions

17. Collisions between gas particles also reduce up and down motions

18. Spinning cloud flattens as it shrinks

19. Disks around Other Stars Observations of disks around other stars support the nebular hypothesis First picture Beta Pictoris about 50LY away.

20. What have we learned? Where did the solar system come from? –Galactic recycling built the elements from which planets formed. –We can observe stars forming in other gas clouds. What caused the orderly patterns of motion in our solar system? –Solar nebula spun faster as it contracted because of conservation of angular momentum –Collisions between gas particles then caused the nebula to flatten into a disk –We have observed such disks around newly forming stars

21. 8.3 The Formation of Planets Our goals for learning Why are there two types of planets? How did terrestrial planets form? How did jovian planets form? What ended the era of planet formation?

22. Why are there two types of planet?

23. As gravity causes cloud to contract, it heats up Conservation of Energy

24. Inner parts of disk are hotter than outer parts. Rock can be solid at much higher temperatures than ice.

25. Inside the frost line: Too hot for hydrogen compounds to form ices. Outside the frost line: Cold enough for ices to form. Fig 9.5

26. How did terrestrial planets form? Small particles of rock and metal were present inside the frost line Planetesimals of rock and metal built up as these particles collided Gravity eventually assembled these planetesimals into terrestrial planets

27. Tiny solid particles stick to form planetesimals.

28. Gravity draws planetesimals together to form planets This process of assembly is called accretion

29. Accretion of Planetesimals Many smaller objects collected into just a few large ones

30. How did jovian planets form? Ice could also form small particles outside the frost line. Larger planetesimals and planets were able to form. Gravity of these larger planets was able to draw in surrounding H and He gases.

31. Gravity of rock and ice in jovian planets draws in H and He gases

32. Moons of jovian planets form in miniature disks

33. What ended the era of planet formation?

34. Outflowing matter from the Sun -- the solar wind -- blew away the leftover gases

35. Solar Rotation In nebular theory, young Sun was spinning much faster than now Friction between solar magnetic field and solar nebular probably slowed the rotation over time

36. What have we learned? Why are there two types of planets? –Only rock and metals condensed inside the frost line –Rock, metals, and ices condensed outside the frost line How did the terrestrial planets form? –Rock and metals collected into planetsimals –Planetesimals then accreted into planets How did the jovian planets form? –Additional ice particles outside frost line made planets there more massive –Gravity of these massive planets drew in H, He gases

37. What have we learned? What ended the era of planet formation? –Solar wind blew away remaining gases –Magnetic fields in early solar wind helped reduce Sun ’ s rotation rate

38. 8.4 The Aftermath of Planet Formation Our goals for learning Where did asteroids and comets come from? How do we explain “ exceptions to the rules ” ? How do we explain the existence of Earth ’ s moon? Was our solar system destined to be?

39. Where did asteroids and comets come from?

40. Asteroids and Comets Leftovers from the accretion process Rocky asteroids inside frost line Icy comets outside frost line

41. How do we explain “ exceptions to the rules ” ?

42. Heavy Bombardment Leftover planetesimals bombarded other objects in the late stages of solar system formation

43. Origin of Earth ’ s Water Water may have come to Earth by way of icy planetesimals from outer solar system

44. Captured Moons Unusual moons of some planets may be captured planetesimals, Phobos and Deimos of Mars.

45. How do we explain the existence of Earth ’ s moon? This is how come it need a special explanation. 1) The Earth ’ s Moon has more angular momentum than most other planet moon systems. 2) The Earth ’ s Moon does not have a large iron-nickel core even though it is almost as big as Mercury. 3) The Earth ’ s Moon is depleted in volatiles, things that evaporate easily. What ever made it must have been heated to high temperatures. in volatiles, things that evaporate easily. What ever made it must have been heated to high temperatures.

46. Giant Impact Giant impact stripped matter from Earth ’ s crust Stripped matter began to orbit Then accreted into Moon

47. Odd Rotation Giant impacts might also explain the different rotation axes of some planets

48. Thought Question How would the solar system be different if the solar nebula had cooled, with a temperature half its actual value? a) Jovian planets would have formed closer to Sun b) There would be no asteroids c) There would be no comets d) Terrestrial planets would be larger

49. Thought Question How would the solar system be different if the solar nebula had cooled, with a temperature half its actual value? a) Jovian planets would have formed closer to Sun b) There would be no asteroids c) There would be no comets d) Terrestrial planets would be larger

50. Was our solar system destined to be? Formation of planets in the solar nebula seems inevitable But details of individual planets could have been different

51. Thought Question Which of these facts is NOT explained by the nebular theory? a)There are two main types of planets: terrestrial and jovian. b)Planets orbit in same direction and plane. c)Existence of asteroids and comets. d)Number of planets of each type (4 terrestrial and 4 jovian).

52. Thought Question Which of these facts is NOT explained by the nebular theory? a)There are two main types of planets: terrestrial and jovian. b)Planets orbit in same direction and plane. c)Existence of asteroids and comets. d)Number of planets of each type (4 terrestrial and 4 jovian).

53. What have we learned? Where did asteroids and comets come from? –They are leftover planetesimals, according to the nebular theory How do we explain “ exceptions to the rules ” ? –Bombardment of newly formed planets by planetesimals may explain the exceptions How do we explain the existence of Earth ’ s moon? –Material torn from Earth ’ s crust by a giant impact formed the Moon Was our solar system destined to be? –Formation of planets seems inevitable. –Detailed characteristics could have been different.

54. 8.5 The Age of the Solar System Our goals for learning How does radioactivity reveal an object ’ s age? When did the planets form?

55. How does radioactivity reveal an object ’ s age?

56. Radioactive Decay Some isotopes decay into other nuclei A half-life is the time for half the nuclei in a substance to decay

57. Thought Question Suppose you find a rock originally made of potassium-40, half of which decays into argon-40 every 1.25 billion years. You open the rock and find 15 atoms of argon-40 for every atom of potassium-40. How long ago did the rock form? a) 1.25 billion years ago b) 2.5 billion years ago c) 3.75 billion years ago d) 5 billion years ago

58. Thought Question Suppose you find a rock originally made of potassium-40, half of which decays into argon-40 every 1.25 billion years. You open the rock and find 15 atoms of argon-40 for every atom of potassium-40. How long ago did the rock form? a) 1.25 billion years ago b) 2.5 billion years ago c) 3.75 billion years ago d) 5 billion years ago

59. Radioactive DecayRadioactive Decay of Potassium-40 Potassium-40 Some isotopes decay into other nucleiisotopes A half-life is the time for half the nuclei in a substance to decayhalf-life

60. Radioactive DecayRadioactive Decay of Potassium-40 Potassium-40 Some isotopes decay into other nucleiisotopes A half-life is the time for half the nuclei in a substance to decayhalf-life

61. K-Ar dating The ratio of the amount of 40 Ar to that of 40 K is directly related to the time elapsed since the rock was cool enough to trap the Ar by the following equation: t=t 1/2 /ln(2) ln ( (K f + Ar f /0.109) / K f ) t is time elapsed t 1/2 is the half life of 40 K=1.248×10 9 yrhalf life K f is the amount of 40 K remaining in the sample Ar f is the amount of 40 Ar found in the sample. The scale factor 0.109 corrects for the unmeasured fraction of 40 K which decayed into 40 Ca (89.1% of the time); the sum of the measured 40 K and the scaled amount of 40 Ar gives the amount of 40 K which was present at the beginning of the elapsed time period. In practice, each of these values may be expressed as a proportion of the total potassium present, as only relative, not absolute, quantities are required. Potassium naturally occurs in 3 isotopes – 39 K (93.2581%), 40 K (0.0117%), 41 K (6.7302%) in terrestrial samples.

62. Radioactive Decay (Weak Nuclear Force) revealing asymmetry between matter and anti-matterWeak Nuclear Force 40 19 K  40 20 Ca+ν 0 e 89.1% of the time n 0  p + +e - +ν 0 e 40 19 K  40 18 Ar+e + +ν 0 e 10.9% of the time p +  n 0 +e + +ν 0 e Baryogenesis How come the observable universe have more matter than antimatter?Baryogenesis Baryon Asymmetry CP Violation Kaon B Meson CKM Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa matrixBaryon AsymmetryCP ViolationKaonB MesonCKM Penguin Feynman diagrams

63. When did the planets form? Radiometric dating tells us that oldest moon rocks are 4.4 billion years old Oldest meteorites are 4.55 billion years old Planets probably formed 4.6 billion years ago

64. What have we learned? How does radioactivity reveal an object ’ s age? –Some isotopes decay with a well-known half- life –Comparing the proportions of those isotopes with their decay products tells us age of object When did the planets form? –Radiometric dating indicates that planets formed 4.6 billion years ago