Gardner’s Art Through the Ages, 13e

Gardner’s Art Through the Ages, 13e
Chapter 36 Europe and America After 1945 & Post Gardner’s Review

PERIOD GROUP ONE GROUP TWO GROUP THREE
13. Site Specific Art GROUP ONE 36-74 GROUP TWO 36-73 GROUP THREE 36-72 SITE SPECIFIC ART Figure CHRISTO and JEAN-CLAUDE, Surrounded Islands, , MIAMI 1. In 1981, artist Richard Serra installs his sculpture Tilted Arc, in Federal Plaza in New York City. It has been commissioned by the Arts-in-Architecture program of the U.S. General Services Administration, which earmarks 0.5 percent of a federal building's cost for artwork. Tilted Arc is a curving wall of raw steel, 120 feet long and 12 feet high, that carves the space of the Federal Plaza in half. Those working in surrounding buildings must circumvent its enormous bulk as they go through the plaza. According to Serra, this is the point, "The viewer becomes aware of himself and of his movement through the plaza. As he moves, the sculpture changes. Contraction and expansion of the sculpture result from the viewer's movement. Step by step the perception not only of the sculpture but of the entire environment changes." The sculpture generates controversy as soon as it is erected, and Judge Edward Re begins a letter-writing campaign to have the $175,000 work removed. Four years later, William Diamond, regional administrator for the GSA, decides to hold a public hearing to determine whether Tilted Arc should be relocated. Estimates for the cost of dismantling the work are $35,000, with an additional $50,000 estimated to erect it in another location. Richard Serra testifies that the sculpture is site-specific, and that to remove it from its site is to destroy it. If the sculpture is relocated, he will remove his name from it. The public hearing is held in March During the hearing, 122 people testify in favor of retaining the sculpture, and 58 testify in favor of removing it. The art establishment -- artists, museum curators, and art critics -- testify that Tilted Arc is a great work of art. Those against the sculpture, for the most part people who work at Federal Plaza, say that the sculpture interferes with public use of the plaza. They also accuse it of attracting graffiti, rats, and terrorists who might use it as a blasting wall for bombs. The jury of five, chaired by William Diamond, vote 4-1 in favor of removing the sculpture. Serra's appeal of the ruling fails. On March 15, 1989, during the night, federal workers cut Tilted Arc into three pieces, remove it from Federal Plaza, and cart it off to a scrap-metal yard. The Tilted Arc, decision prompts general questions about public art, an increasingly controversial subject through the late 1980s and early 1990s in the U.S. and abroad. The role of government funding, an artist's rights to his or her work, the role of the public in determining the value of a work of art, and whether public art should be judged by its popularity are all heatedly debated. Serra's career continues to flourish, despite the controversy. "I don't think it is the function of art to be pleasing," he comments at the time. "Art is not democratic. It is not for the people." Other works by Serra are in the permanent collection of museums around the world. 2. On May 7, 1983, the installation of Surrounded Islands was completed in Biscayne Bay, between the city of Miami, North Miami, the Village of Miami Shores and Miami Beach. Eleven of the islands situated in the area of Bakers Haulover Cut, Broad Causeway, 79th Street Causeway, Julia Tuttle Causeway, and Venetian Causeway were surrounded with 6.5 million square feet (603,870 square meters) of floating pink woven polypropylene fabric covering the surface of the water and extending out 200 feet (61 meters) from each island into the bay. The fabric was sewn into 79 patterns to follow the contours of the 11 islands. For two weeks, Surrounded Islands, spreading over 7 miles (11.3 kilometers), was seen, approached and enjoyed by the public, from the causeways, the land, the water and the air. The luminous pink color of the shiny fabric was in harmony with the tropical vegetation of the uninhabited verdant islands, the light of the Miami sky and the colors of the shallow waters of Biscayne Bay. Since April 1981, attorneys Joseph Z. Fleming, Joseph W. Landers, marine biologist Anitra Thorhaug, ornithologists Oscar Owre and Meri Cummings, mammal expert Daniel Odell, marine engineer John Michel, four consulting engineers, and builder-contractor, Ted Dougherty of A and H Builders, Inc. had been working on the preparation of the Surrounded Islands. The marine and land crews picked up debris from the eleven islands, putting refuse in bags and carting it away after they had removed some forty tons of varied garbage that included refrigerator doors, tires, kitchen sinks, mattresses and an abandoned boat. Permits were obtained from the following governmental agencies: The Governor of Florida and the Cabinet; the Dade County Commission; the Department of Environmental Regulation; the City of Miami Commission; the City of North Miami; the Village of Miami Shores; the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; the Dade County Department of Environmental Resources Management. The outer edge of the floating fabric was attached to a 12 inch (30.5 centimeter) diameter octagonal boom, in sections, of the same color as the fabric. The boom was connected to the radial anchor lines which extended from the anchors at the island to the 610 specially made anchors, spaced at 50 foot (15.2 meter) intervals, 250 feet (76.2 meters) beyond the perimeter of each island, driven into the limestone at the bottom of the bay. Earth anchors were driven into the land, near the foot of the trees, to secure the inland edge of the fabric, covering the surface of the beach and disappearing under the vegetation. The floating rafts of fabric and booms, varying from 12 to 22 feet (3.7 to 6.7 meters) in width and from 400 to 600 feet (122 to 183 meters) in length were towed through the bay to each island. There were eleven islands, but on two occasions, two islands were surrounded together as one configuration. As with Christo and Jeanne-Claude's previous art projects, Surrounded Islands was entirely financed by the artists, through the sale of preparatory drawings, collages, and early works. The artists do not accept sponsorship of any kind. On May 4, 1983, out of a total work force of 430, the unfurling crew began to blossom the pink fabric. Surrounded Islands was tended day and night by 120 monitors in inflatable boats. Surrounded Islands was a work of art underlining the various elements and ways in which the people of Miami live, between land and water. 3. One of the most remarkable examples is Robert Smithson’s Spiral Jetty, located at Rozel Point peninsula on the northeastern shore of Great Salt Lake. With the assistance of a team operating dump trucks, a tractor, and a front loader, Smithson created the sculpture in three weeks in April Over six thousand tons of black basalt rocks and earth were formed into a coil 1,500 feet long and 15 feet wide that winds counterclockwise off the shore into the water. In 1999, through the generosity of the artist Nancy Holt, Smithson’s widow, and the Estate of Robert Smithson, the artwork was donated to Dia Art Foundation. Figure RICHARD SERRA, Tilted Arc, NEW YORK Site-specific art is artwork created to exist in a certain place. Typically, the artist takes the location into account while planning and creating the artwork. Figure ROBERT SMITHSON, Spiral Jetty, UTAH.

an art form that combines visual art with dramatic performance
PERIOD 14. Performance Art GROUP ONE 36-78 GROUP TWO 36-77 GROUP THREE 36-76 Figure JOSEPH BEUYS, How to explain pictures to a dead hare., 1965, GERMANY Figure 36-78, JEAN TINGUELY, Homage to New York, NEW YORK PERFORMANCE ART Swiss artist Jean Tinguely was best known for his 1960 performance piece entitled Homage to New York. This work involved the self-destruction of a huge sculpture in front of an audience at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. In collaboration with other artists/engineers, among them Billy Klüver and Robert Rauschenberg, he produced a self-destroying mechanism that performed for 27 minutes during a public performance for invited guests. In the end, the public browsed the remnants of the machine for souvenirs to take home. The work only partially auto-destructed before the fire department stepped in and put a stop to it all much to the dismay of the crowd. Pieces of the work were kept as mementos, however the majority of it was thrown away. This homage to the energy of a city that keeps rebuilding itself time after time is a wonderful example of the different and sometimes conflicting conceptions of artists and engineers on how machines should work–and as such an early collaborative effort that foreshadowed the events staged by E.A.T.—as well as a document on the 60s with the rise of happening and performance In the 1960s, the master of Performance Art was the German artist Joseph Beuys. In his How to Explain Pictures to a Dead Hare, Beuys covers his head in honey and gold leaf and attaches a metal flange to one foot. In effect, Beuys is meant to look like a wizard or all-knowing magician but he is handicapped. In his performance piece, Beuys cradles a dead hare (a real, actual, dead hare) in his arms and as he hobbles around the gallery space the artist points out paintings on the walls to the hare and whispers in its floppy, fluffy ears. What is the point? Well, Beuys is commenting on the endless attempts to interpret and explain art - and he's claiming that even a dead hare has more power of intuition than some people. "Meat Joy has the character of an erotic rite: excessive, indulgent, a celebration of flesh as material: raw fish, chickens, sausages, wet paint, transparent plastic, rope brushes, paper scrap. It's propulsion is toward the ecstatic-- shifting and turning between tenderness, wilderness, precision, abandon: qualities which could at any moment be sensual, comic, joyous, repellent." Performance Art: an art form that combines visual art with dramatic performance Figure CAROLEE SCHNEEMAN, Meat Joy, NEW YORK.

PERIOD GROUP ONE GROUP TWO GROUP THREE New media art
36-83 GROUP TWO 36-85 GROUP THREE 36-84 NEW MEDIA The Crossing by Bill Viola consists of a large screen which displays a motion picture on both sides (front and back) simultaniously. It is hung in the middle of a room so viewers can walk around it if they wished. On one side, the video shows a man walking towards the audience in slow motion. He comes to a halt, and moments later a fire starts at his feet. The fire climbs up his body until the man is entirely covered in flames. When the fire slows again, the man is gone, guzzled by the fire. On the other side of the screen, the same man walks towards the audience in slow motion. But when he stops this time, water starts dripping on his head. Gradually, more and more water falls down on him until finally he is not visible anymore, completely hidden behind the water. Again, when the water stops falling, the man has disappeared. All this was accompanied by matching sounds. Video documentation of The Crossing and making of the work can be found on the SF MOMA website: Viola's personal history unveils why his art (almost) always has something to do with water. When he was six years old, he fell out of a boat when he was on holiday with his parents. He nearly drowned. But unlike most people, Viola described the experience as “… the most beautiful world I’ve ever seen in my life” and “without fear,” and “peaceful” [1]. This near-drowning experience resulted in his fascination with water. "Often I've used water as a metaphor, the surface both reflecting the outer world and acting as a barrier to the other world." [2] For The Crossing, Viola added another element: fire; water's natural opposite. This results in an interesting interplay between antipoles. Tung Nguyen says this piece is about balance. "The concept of balance is presented through opposite concepts that each alone is an extreme that can only be balanced by one of the other extreme. Left - right, fire - water, red - blue, warm - cool, hot - cold, bottom - top, and so on. The viewer can even sense the artist's desire for moderation, for compromise, and the message that the extremes are what harming us (burnt by fire or washed away by water) and we need a common ground to survive." [3] But one might also think about the disappearance as the most important part. Where has the man gone, is he dead? Or is he in a higher state? Perhaps he has dissolved on to the other side of the screen: first catching fire to be put out by the water later or first being soaking wet and in need of some warmth. In that case it is more a "what-came-first-the-chicken-or-the-egg" kind of question. Who is to say? One thing is certain: Bill Viola says the idea came out of his unconscious. Since we can't look there for answers, we should probably interpret this piece on our own, with help of our own unconscious part of our brain. 2. Jenny Holzer began the Truisms series in 1977 as a distillation of an erudite reading list from the Whitney Independent Study Program in New York City, where she was a student; by 1979 she had written several hundred one-liners. Beginning with a little knowledge goes a long way and ending with your oldest fears are the worst ones, the Truisms employ a variety of voices and express a wide spectrum of biases and beliefs. If any consistent viewpoint emerges in the edgy, stream-of-consciousness provocations it is that truth is relative and that each viewer must become an active participant in determining what is legitimate and what is not. Since the Truisms, Holzer has used language exclusively and has employed myriad ways to convey her messages. Selections from her Inflammatory Essays series, for example, appeared on unsigned, commercially printed posters, which were wheat-pasted on buildings and walls around Manhattan. When such Holzer phrases as abuse of power comes as no surprise and money creates taste flashed from the Spectacolor board above Times Square in 1982, it marked her first appropriation of electronic signage. In doing so, she brought her disquieting messages to a new height of subversive social engagement. Her strategy-placing surprising texts where normal signage is expected-gives Holzer direct access to a large public that might not give “art” any consideration, while allowing her to undermine forms of power and control that often go unnoticed. In Holzer's 1989 retrospective installation at the Guggenheim Museum, blinking messages from her various series, programmed to an insistent but silent beat, raced the length of an L.E.D. display board installed along the winding inner wall of Frank Lloyd Wright's spiral ramp. The museum's rotunda was transformed into a dazzling electronic arcade. In bringing her art from the street to the museum, Holzer focused on an audience that differed markedly from the unsuspecting passerby. The Guggenheim visitors who stood beneath the revolving ribbons of red, green, and yellow texts were more likely to be aware that this installation brought up such issues as the viability of public art, the commodification and consumption of art, and the conflation of the personal and the political—in short, some of the pressing issues of American art in the 1980s 3. Em's art is difficult to categorize. His work spans multiple media, including all-electronic virtual worlds, filmmaking, photography, and printmaking. He has also worked with live performance and theater. [5]Most of his work exists outside of the mainstream art world. Stylistically, Em's art has connections to Surrealism, abstract painting, and experimental film. There are also often landscape and architectural elements. Some pieces feature geometric components, while others are organic in nature. He says he "makes pictures with electronic light” and "sculpts with memory instead of space.” He also "evolves images so that they grow into and out of each other” Figure JENNY HOLZER, Untitled, 1989., LED Electronic NEW YORK Figure BILL VIOLA, The crossing, Video and Sound, New media art New media art is a genre that encompasses artworks created with new media technologies, including digital art, computer graphics, computer animation, virtual art, Internet art, interactive art, video games, computer robotics, and art as biotechnology. Figure DAVID EM, Nora, Computer generated , 1979.

reflections

3 ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN: 3000-2920 BCE PREDYNASTIC EGYPT
Palette of King Narmer Figure 3-3 Palette of King Narmer (left, back; right, front), from Hierakonpolis, Egypt, Predynastic, ca. 3000–2920 BCE. Slate, 2’ 1” high. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Predynastic period ended with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt It is now believed unification occurred over several centuries Ceremonial palette (stone slab with circular depression) One of the earliest historical artworks preserved Palette depicts the creation of a “Kingdom of the Two Lands” as a single great event Important document in making the transition from prehistoric to the historical period in Ancient Egypt Formula for figure representation that characterizes most Egyptian art for 3,000 years. Commemorative not funerary King wearing crown of Upper Egypt Accompanied by officials carrying his sandals Slaying Enemy Elongated necks of two felines form a circular depression Held eye make-up Reference Egypt’s unification Dead are seen from above Artist depicted each body with it’s severed head Scale of King Bull symbol of Kings strength knocking down the rebellious city King characterized as “Supreme” Size, placement, symbolism 3

2 ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN: 2600-2400BCE Standard of Ur
Sumerian – Ancient Near East Figure 2-8 War side of the Standard of Ur, from Tomb 779, Royal Cemetery, Ur (modern Tell Muqayyar), Iraq, ca BCE. Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone, 8” x 1’ 7”. British Museum, London. This object was found in one of the largest graves in the Royal Cemetery at Ur, lying in the corner of a chamber above the right shoulder of a man. Its original function is not yet understood. Leonard Woolley, the excavator at Ur, imagined that it was carried on a pole as a standard, hence its common name. Another theory suggests that it formed the soundbox of a musical instrument. When found, the original wooden frame for the mosaic of shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli had decayed, and the two main panels had been crushed together by the weight of the soil. The bitumen acting as glue had disintegrated and the end panels were broken. As a result, the present restoration is only a best guess as to how it originally appeared. The main panels are known as 'War' and 'Peace'. 'War' shows one of the earliest representations of a Sumerian army. Chariots, each pulled by four donkeys, trample enemies; infantry with cloaks carry spears; enemy soldiers are killed with axes, others are paraded naked and presented to the king who holds a spear. The 'Peace' panel depicts animals, fish and other goods brought in procession to a banquet. Seated figures, wearing woollen fleeces or fringed skirts, drink to the accompaniment of a musician playing a lyre. Banquet scenes such as this are common on cylinder seals of the period, such as on the seal of the 'Queen' Pu-abi, also in the British Museum 2

3 ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN: 1550 BCE
Temple of Amun-Re and Hypostyle Hall. Karnak, near Luxor, Egypt PAGE 70 Cult temple dedicated to Amun, Mut and Khonsu. The largest religious building ever constructed. The temple of Karnak was known as Ipet-isu—or “most select of places”—by the ancient Egyptians. It is a city of temples built over 2,000 years and dedicated to the Theban triad of Amun, Mut, and Khonsu. This derelict place is still capable of overshadowing many wonders of the modern world and in its day must have been awe-inspiring. For the largely uneducated ancient Egyptian population, this could only have been the place of the gods. It is the largest religious building ever made, covering about 200 acres (1.5 km by 0.8 km), and was a place of pilgrimage for nearly 2,000 years. The area of the sacred enclosure of Amun alone is sixty-one acres and could hold ten average European cathedrals. The great temple at the heart of Karnak is so big that St Peter’s, Milan, and Notre Dame Cathedrals would fit within its walls. The Hypostyle hall, at 54,000 square feet (16,459 meters) and featuring 134 columns, is still the largest room of any religious building in the world. In addition to the main sanctuary there are several smaller temples and a vast sacred lake – 423 feet by 252 feet (129 by 77 meters). The sacred barges of the Theban Triad once floated on the lake during the annual Opet festival. The lake was surrounded by storerooms and living quarters for the priests, along with an aviary for aquatic birds. The Egyptians believed that towards the end of annual agricultural cycle the gods and the earth became exhausted and required a fresh input of energy from the chaotic energy of the cosmos. To accomplish this magical regeneration the Opet festival was held yearly at Karnak and Luxor. It lasted for twenty-seven days and was also a celebration of the link between pharaoh and the god Amun. The procession began at Karnak and ended at Luxor Temple, one and a half miles (2.4 kilometres) to the south. The statue of the god Amun was bathed with holy water, dressed in fine linen, and adorned in gold and silver jewellery. The priests then placed the god in a shrine and onto the ceremonial barque supported by poles for carrying. Pharaoh emerged from the temple, his priests carrying the barque on their shoulders, and together they moved into the crowded streets. A troop of Nubian soldiers serving as guards beat their drums, and musicians accompanied the priests in song as incense filled the air. At Luxor, (right) Pharaoh and his priests entered the temple and ceremonies were performed to regenerate Amun, recreate the cosmos and transfer Amun’s power to Pharaoh. When he finally emerged from the temple sanctuary, the vast crowds cheered him and celebrated the guaranteed fertility of the earth and the expectation of abundant harvests. During the festival the people were given over loaves of bread and more than 385 jars of beer, and some were allowed into the temple to ask questions of the god. The priests spoke the answers through a concealed window high up in the wall, or from inside hollow statues. 3

Audience Hall Persepolis, Iran. Persian – Page 49 The heart of ancient Persia is in what is now southwest Iran, in the region called the Fars. In the second half of the 6th century B.C.E., the Persians (also called the Achaemenids) created an enormous empire reaching from the Indus Valley to Northern Greece and from Central Asia to Egypt. A tolerant empire Although the surviving literary sources on the Persian empire were written by ancient Greeks who were the sworn enemies of the Persians and highly contemptuous of them, the Persians were in fact quite tolerant and ruled a multi-ethnic empire. Persia was the first empire known to have acknowledged the different faiths, languages and political organizations of its subjects. This tolerance for the cultures under Persian control carried over into administration. In the lands which they conquered, the Persians continued to use indigenous languages and administrative structures. For example, the Persians accepted hieroglyphic script written on papyrus in Egypt and traditional Babylonian record keeping in cuneiform in Mesopotamia. The Persians must have been very proud of this new approach to empire as can be seen in the representation of the many different peoples in the reliefs from Persepolis, a city founded by Darius the Great in the 6th century B.C.E. The Apadana Persepolis included a massive columned hall used for receptions by the Kings, called the Apadana. This hall contained 72 columns and two monumental stairways. The walls of the spaces and stairs leading up to the reception hall were carved with hundreds of figures, several of which illustrated subject peoples of various ethnicities, bringing tribute to the Persian king. Conquered by Alexander the Great The Persian Empire was, famously, conquered by Alexander the Great. Alexander no doubt was impressed by the Persian system of absorbing and retaining local language and traditions as he imitated this system himself in the vast lands he won in battle. Indeed, Alexander made a point of burying the last Persian emperor, Darius III, in a lavish and respectful way in the royal tombs near Persepolis. This enabled Alexander to claim title to the Persian throne and legitimize his control over the greatest empire of the Ancient Near East. Essay by Dr. Senta German 2

10 ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN: 50 BCE Head of a Roman Patrician 75-50 BCE
Roman Empire - REPUBLIC Seemingly wrinkled and toothless, with sagging jowls, the face of a Roman aristocrat stares at us across the ages. In the aesthetic parlance of the Late Roman Republic, the physical traits of this portrait image are meant to convey seriousness of mind (gravitas) and the virtue (virtus) of a public career by demonstrating the way in which the subject literally wears the marks of his endeavors. While this representational strategy might seem unusual in the post-modern world, in the waning days of the Roman Republic it was an effective means of competing in an ever more complex socio-political arena. The Portrait This portrait head, now housed in the Palazzo Torlonia in Rome, Italy, comes from Otricoli (ancient Ocriculum) and dates to the middle of the first century B.C.E. The name of the individual depicted is now unknown, but the portrait is a powerful representation of a male aristocrat with a hooked nose and strong cheekbones. The figure is frontal without any hint of dynamism or emotion—this sets the portrait apart from some of its near contemporaries. The portrait head is characterized by deep wrinkles, a furrowed brow, and generally an appearance of sagging, sunken skin—all indicative of the veristic style of Roman portraiture. Verism Verism can be defined as a sort of hyperrealism in sculpture where the naturally occurring features of the subject are exaggerated, often to the point of absurdity. In the case of Roman Republican portraiture, middle age males adopt veristic tendencies in their portraiture to such an extent that they appear to be extremely aged and care worn. This stylistic tendency is influenced both by the tradition of ancestral imagines as well as a deep-seated respect for family, tradition, and ancestry. The imagines were essentially death masks of notable ancestors that were kept and displayed by the family. In the case of aristocratic families these wax masks were used at subsequent funerals so that an actor might portray the deceased ancestors in a sort of familial parade (Polybius History ). The ancestor cult, in turn, influenced a deep connection to family. For Late Republican politicians without any famous ancestors (a group famously known as ‘new men’ or ‘homines novi’) the need was even more acute—and verism rode to the rescue. The adoption of such an austere and wizened visage was a tactic to lend familial gravitas to families who had none—and thus (hopefully) increase the chances of the aristocrat’s success in both politics and business. This jockeying for position very much characterized the scene at Rome in the waning days of the Roman Republic and the Otricoli head is a reminder that one’s public image played a major role in what was a turbulent time in Roman history. Essay by Dr. Jeffrey A. Becker 10

ROMAN EMPIRE – HIGH EMPIRE – PAGE 274 107 A.D. - Dacia (Romania) conquered and work begins; January 15th 112 A.D. – Inauguration of the Forum and the Basilica Ulpia; May 18th 113 A.D. – Inauguration of the Trajan Column; 117 A.D. – Trajan dies and the arch of triumph is ordered by the Senate; A.D. – Probable dedication to the temple on behalf of Adrian. This basilica—the largest in the city—was part of Trajan's Forum and was probably completed in A.D It was rectangular in shape, had five aisles and apses at the short ends. The main entrance was on the facade of the building facing the open plaza of the forum. The façade was punctuated by three porches. Between the porches were three colossal statues of Trajan, of which two are preserved (one shows him as a general; the other as a magistrate). Forum of Trajan The Forum of Trajan has a more complicated foundation than the other Imperial Forums. The piazza is closed, with the Basilica Ulpia. At the back of this the Trajan column was elevated between the two Libraries, and it was believed that the complex concluded with the Temple dedicated to Divo Trajan. One entered the piazza through a curved arch passageway, a type of arch of triumph, in the center of a convex wall decorated with jutting columns. An equestrian statue of Trajan occupied the center of the piazza, which was bordered by porticos with decorated attics-similar to the Forum of Augustus but with Caryatids instead of Daci. Spacious covered exedras opened up behind the porticos. The facade of the basilica, that closed the piazza, also had an attic decorated with Daci statues. The inside of the Basilica had 5 naves with columns along the short sides and apses at both ends; the very spacious central nave had two floors. The Trajan Column was closed in a small courtyard, bordered by porticos opposite of the Library's facade. These were constituted of large rooms with niches in the walls and decorated with two types of columns. The temple was probably of an enormous dimension and probably closed by a fenced portico. Today's archeological excavations in the Forum of Trajan have demonstrated that the Temple of Trajan's position is not what it was hypothesized to be in the past. Archeological evidence has clarified the findings in the area to be Insulae- remains of houses rather than those from a temple structure. These findings lie underneath what is today the Province headquarters- the palazzo of Valentini, next to the Column's location. Rather, the temple was probably situated exactly in the middle of the forum area, where excavation is now taking place. The Forum of Trajan was utilized as a splendid area of representation for public ceremonies. We know, for example, that in 118 A.D. Adriano publicly burned tables with citizen's debts in the piazza, as a statement to the treasury. Also, in the late epoch, exedras behind the lateral porticos were used to host poetry readings and conferences. Court hearings and ceremonies for the freedom of slaves were probably held in the apses of the Basilica. The Library was probably used as a sort of historical archive of the Roman state and also conserved republican annals. The sculptural decorations in the various Forum spaces transmitted messages of imperial propaganda of Trajan. Above all was the celebration of the Daci conquest and the victorious army with focus on the achievement of peace. The representation was sculpted into the walls with images of the conquests. Images of cupids watering griffins on the entrance wall allude again to the peacefulness of the Empire's power. The expansion and growth of the Empire, completed with the campaign towards the Orient and interrupted by the death of the Emperor, would have allowed Trajan to consider himself the new founder of Rome. His representation as a hero is justified in his sepulcher in the base of the Column, in the heart of the city. 10

10-11 EARLY EUROPE & COLONIAL AMERICA: 422 CE
Santa Sabina 432 – PAGE 299 LATE ANTIQUITY Compare Aula Palatina page 285 – ROMAN Built in 422 AD, Santa Sabina is widely considered the best example of an early Christian church in Rome. It has a similar design to the great basilica of Sant'Apollinaire Nuovo in Ravenna, which was built later. Although few of its mosaics survive, Santa Sabina is famed for its 5th-century wooden doors carved with biblical scenes. The church stands atop the Aventine Hill, providing fine views of Rome from an adjacent orange grove. Santa Sabina was built at the top of the Aventine Hill on the site of the Temple of Juno Regina, using many of its materials. The church was an expansion of a Roman house-church (titulus) owned by a woman named Sabina. As was common in ancient Rome, the church preserved the name of the title holder by simply adding "Saint" onto her name. The Church of Santa Sabina was founded around 425 AD and was completed by about 432. Marking a development from the earlier basilica style seen at San Clemente, Santa Sabina "typifies in plan and proportion the new Roman standard basilica of the fifth century," representing "a high point of Roman church building" (Krautheimer). The tall, spacious nave has 24 marble columns with perfectly matched Corinthian columns and bases, which were reused from the Temple of Juno. The spandrels of the closely-spaced arches have inlaid marble designs in green and purple, depicting chalices and patens to represent the Eucharist. The interior is very bright, thanks to the row of large windows in the clerestory plus three in the apse and five in the facade. The beautiful windows and marble chancel furniture (schola cantorum, ambo and cathedra) date from the 9th century and were painstakingly reconstructed from fragments in the early 20th century. The 16th-century fresco in the apse is one of the few later decorations allowed to stay after the restoration, since it reflects the spirit of the original apse mosaic. There are a few traces of 5th-century fresco to be found in the church, at the east end of the left aisle. The floor of the nave contains Rome's only surviving mosaic tomb, dating from around 1300. Sadly nearly all of the original mosaic decoration, which would have been as sumptuous as that of Ravennas basilicas, has disappeared. The sole survivor is an important one, however: the 5th-century dedicatory inscription. The lengthy Latin text, written in gold on a blue background, is flanked by two female figures who personify the Church of the Jews and the Church of the Gentiles. This inscription is important not only because it gives the founder's name and date of the church, but also because it expresses the doctrine of papal supremacy, which was still developing at that time. The 5th-century door of Santa Sabina is easy to overlook, but it would be a great shame to miss it. It is at the end of the narthex beyond the entrance door to the church. Beautifully carved from dark cypress wood, the ancient door contains 18 panels of narrative carvings, most depicting biblical scenes. Its frame is made of 3rd-century marble spoils. The panels are not in their original order (it was restored in 1836) and 10 others have been lost, but the door remains a remarkable and precious survival. In particular, the Crucifixion scene is the earliest known depiction of that subject in the world. Other subjects include Moses and the Burning Bush, the Exodus, the Ascension of Elijah, the Ascension of Christ, Christ's Post-Resurrection Appearances, and Three Miracles of Christ. There are also two intriguing panels whose subjects are not biblical and are difficult to interpret. 10-11

16 EARLY EUROPE & COLONIAL AMERICA: 700 CE
Lindisfarne Gospels St. Luke – PAGE 413 The Holy Island of Lindisfarne is a tidal island off the northeast coast of England. It is also known just as Holy Island. It constitutes the civil parish of Holy Island in Northumberland. Holy Island has a recorded history from the 6th century The book is a spectacular example of Insular or Hiberno-Saxon art—works produced in the British Isles between C.E., a time of devastating invasions and political upheavals. Monks read from it during rituals at their Lindisfarne Priory on Holy Island, a Christian community that safeguarded the shrine of St Cuthbert, a bishop who died in 687 and whose relics were thought to have curative and miracle-working powers. A Northumbrian monk, very likely the bishop Eadfrith, illuminated the codex in the early 8th century. Two-hundred and fifty-nine written and recorded leaves include full-page portraits of each evangelist; highly ornamental “cross-carpet” pages, each of which features a large cross set against a background of ordered and yet teeming ornamentation; and the Gospels themselves, each introduced by an historiated initial. The codex also includes sixteen pages of canon tables set in arcades. Here correlating passages from each evangelist are set side-by-side, enabling a reader to compare narrations. In 635 C.E. Christian monks from the Scottish island of Iona built a priory in Lindisfarne. More than a hundred and fifty years later, in 793, Vikings from the north attacked and pillaged the monastery, but survivors managed to transport the Gospels safely to Durham, a town on the Northumbrian coast about 75 miles west of its original location. We glean this information from the manuscript itself, thanks to Aldred, a 10th-century priest from a priory at Durham. Aldred’s colophon—an inscription that relays information about the book’s production—informs us that Eadfrith, a bishop of Lindisfarne in 698 who died in 721, created the manuscript to honor God and St. Cuthbert. Aldred also inscribed a vernacular translation between the lines of the Latin text, creating the earliest known Gospels written in a form of English. Matthew’s cross-carpet page exemplifies Eadfrith’s exuberance and genius. A mesmerizing series of repetitive knots and spirals is dominated by a centrally-located cross. One can imagine devout monks losing themselves in the swirls and eddies of color during meditative contemplation of its patterns. Compositionally, Eadfrith stacked wine-glass shapes horizontally and vertically against his intricate weave of knots. On closer inspection many of these knots reveal themselves as snake-like creatures curling in and around tubular forms, mouths clamping down on their bodies. Chameleon-like, their bodies change colors: sapphire blue here, verdigris green there, and sandy gold in between. The sanctity of the cross, outlined in red with arms outstretched and pressing against the page edges, stabilizes the background’s gyrating activity and turns the repetitive energy into a meditative force. Likewise, Luke’s incipit (incipit: it begins) page teems with animal life, spiraled forms, and swirling vortexes. In many cases Eadfrith’s characteristic knots reveal themselves as snakes that move stealthily along the confines of a letter’s boundaries. Blue pin-wheeled shapes rotate in repetitive circles, caught in the vortex of a large Q that forms Luke’s opening sentence—Quoniam quidem multi conati sunt ordinare narrationem. (Translation: As many have taken it in hand to set forth in order.) Birds also abound. One knot enclosed in a tall rectangle on the far right unravels into a blue heron’s chest shaped like a large comma. Eadfrith repeats this shape vertically down the column, cleverly twisting the comma into a cat’s forepaw at the bottom. The feline, who has just consumed the eight birds that stretch vertically up from its head, presses off this appendage acrobatically to turn its body 90 degrees; it ends up staring at the words RENARRATIONEM (part of the phrase -re narrationem). Eadfrith also has added a host of tiny red dots that envelop words, except when they don’t—the letters “NIAM” of “quoniam” are composed of the vellum itself, the negative space now asserting itself as four letters. Luke’s incipit page is in marked contrast to his straightforward portrait page. Here Eadfrith seats the curly-haired, bearded evangelist on a red-cushioned stool against an unornamented background. Luke holds a quill in his right hand, poised to write words on a scroll unfurling from his lap. His feet hover above a tray supported by red legs. He wears a purple robe streaked with red, one that we can easily imagine on a late fourth or fifth century Roman philosopher. The gold halo behind Luke’s head indicates his divinity. Above his halo flies a blue-winged calf, its two eyes turned toward the viewer with its body in profile. The bovine clasps a green parallelogram between two forelegs, a reference to the Gospel. 16

Golden Haggadah (The Plaques of Egypt, Preparation for Passover) PAGE 482, 484, 485 olden Haggadah. Biblical scenes based on Genesis, Northern Spain, probably Barcelona, c.1320 The extravagant use of gold-leaf in the backgrounds of its 56 miniature paintings earned this magnificent manuscript its name: the 'Golden Haggadah'. It was made around 1320, in or near Barcelona, for the use of a wealthy Jewish family. The holy text is written on vellum pages in Hebrew script, reading from right to left. Its stunning miniatures illustrate stories from the biblical books of 'Genesis' and 'Exodus' and scenes of Jewish ritual. A haggadah is a collection of Jewish prayers and readings written to accompany the Passover 'seder', a ritual meal eaten on the eve of the Passover festival. The ritual meal was formalised during the 2nd century, after the example of the Greek 'symposium', in which philosophical debate was fortified by food and wine. The literal meaning of the Hebrew word 'haggadah' is a 'narration' or 'telling'. It refers to a command in the biblical book of 'Exodus', requiring Jews to "tell your son on that day: it is because of that which the Lord did for me when I came forth out of Egypt". Perhaps because it was mainly intended for use at home, and its purpose was educational, Jewish scribes and artists felt completely free to illustrate the Haggadah. Indeed it was traditionally the most lavishly decorated of all Jewish sacred writings, giving well-to-do Jews of the middle ages a chance to demonstrate their wealth and good taste as well as their piety. The man for whom the 'Golden Haggadah' was made must have been rich indeed. The illumination of the manuscript - its paintings and decoration - was carried out by two artists. Though their names are unknown, the similarity of their styles implies they both worked in the same studio in the Barcelona region. The gothic style of northern French painting was a strong influence on Spanish illuminators, and these two were no exceptions. There is also Italian influence to be seen in the rendering of the background architecture. Differences between the two artists may be attributed to their individual talents and training. The painter of the scenes shown here tends towards stocky figures with rather exaggerated facial expressions. The second artist has a greater sense of refinement and achieves a better sense of space. 18

Palazzo Rucellai – COMPARE page 565 Leon Battista Alberti, Palazzo Rucellai. Florence, c Leon Battista Alberti, Palazzo Rucellai. Florence, c , photo: John Galanti (CC BY 2.0) By 1450, the skyline of Florence was dominated by Brunelleschi's dome. Although Brunelleschi had created a new model for church architecture based on the Renaissance’s pervasive philosophy, Humanism, no equivalent existed for private dwellings. In 1446, Leon Battista Alberti, whose texts On Painting and On Architecture established the guidelines for the creation of paintings and buildings that would be followed for centuries, designed a façade that was truly divorced from the medieval style, and could finally be considered quintessentially Renaissance: the Palazzo Rucellai. Alberti constructed the façade of the Palazzo over a period of five years, from ; the home was just one of many important commissions that Alberti completed for the Rucellais—a wealthy merchant family. Three tiers Like traditional Florentine palazzi, the façade is divided into three tiers. But Alberti divided these with the horizontal entablatures that run across the facade (an entablature is the horizontal space above columns or pliasters). The first tier grounds the building, giving it a sense of strength. This is achieved by the use of cross-hatched, or rusticated stone that runs across the very bottom of the building, as well as large stone blocks, square windows, and portals of post and lintel construction in place of arches. The overall horizontality of this façade is called “trabeated” architecture, which Alberti thought was most fitting for the homes of nobility. Each tier also decreases in height from the bottom to top. On each tier, Alberti used pilasters, or flattened engaged columns, to visually support the entablature. On the first tier, they are of the Tuscan order. On the second and third tiers, Alberti used smaller stones to give the feeling of lightness, which is enhanced by the rounded arches of the windows, a typically Roman feature. Both of these tiers also have pilasters, although on the second tier they are of the Ionic order, and on the third they are Corinthian. The building is also wrapped by benches that served, as they do now, to provide rest for weary visitors to Florence. The Palazzo Rucellai actually had four floors: the first was where the family conducted their business; the second floor, or piano nobile, was they received guests; the third floor contained the family’s private apartments; and a hidden fourth floor, which had few windows and is invisible from the street, was where the servants lived. The loggia In addition to the façade, Alberti may have also designed an adjacent loggia (a covered colonnaded space) where festivities were held. The loggia may have been specifically built for an extravagent 1461 wedding that joined the Rucellai and Medici families. It repeats the motif of the pilasters and arches found on the top two tiers of the palazzo. The loggia joins the building at an irregularly placed, not central, courtyard, which was probably based on Brunelleschi‘s Ospedale degli Innocenti. The influence of ancient Rome In many ways, this building is very similar to the Colosseum, which Alberti saw in Rome during his travels in the 1430s. The great Roman amphitheater is also divided into tiers. More importantly, it uses architectural features for decorative purposes rather than structural support; like the engaged columns on the Colosseum, the pilasters on the façade The Palazzo Rucellai has many features in common with the Palazzo Medici (below), which was constructed a few years before, not far from Alberti’s building. The Palazzo Medici is also divided into three horizontal planes that decrease in heaviness from bottom to top. But there are subtle differences that betray the intents of the patrons. The bottom tier of the Palazzo Medici, built for Cosimo il Vecchio de’ Medici by Michelozzo, resembles the stone of the Palazzo Vecchio (left), the seat of political power of Florence, with which Cosimo intentionally wanted to associate himself. It also employs the same type of windows. Because Michelozzo used this medieval building as a model, whereas Alberti looked to ancient Rome, the Palazzo Medici is not truly Humanist in its conception and lacks the geometric proportion, grace, and order of the Palazzo Rucellai. The top tier of the Palazzo Medici is almost entirely plain, whereas Alberti continued to use architectural features for ornamentation throughout his design. The main difference between the Palazzo Rucellai and other palazzi was Alberti’s reliance on ancient Rome. This may have reflected Giovanni Rucellai’s pretensions for his family. Rome was the seat of the papacy, and though Rucellai was not a cleric, he claimed to have descended from a Templar. The Palazzo Rucellai went on to influence the design for the homes of many clerics, such as the famous Palazzo Piccolomini that was built for Pope Pius II in Pienza by Bernardo Rossellino. 21

Frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza MS. Arch. Selden. A. 1, fols. 1v–2r, Codex Mendoza, Viceroyalty of New Spain, c. 1541–1542, pigment on paper © Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford Priests and pirates Around 1541, the first viceroy of New Spain, Antonio de Mendoza, commissioned a codex to record information about the Aztec empire. The codex, now known as the Codex Mendoza, contained information about the lords of Tenochtitlan, the tribute paid to the Aztecs, and an account of life “from year to year.” The artist or artists were indigenous, and the images were often annotated in Spanish by a priest that spoke Nahuatl, the language spoken by the Nahuas (the ethnic group to whom the Aztecs belonged). Viceroy Mendoza intended to send the Codex to the Spanish King, Emperor Charles V of Spain, although it never made it to Spain; French pirates acquired the Codex and it ended up in France. Upon its appearance in sixteenth-century France, it was acquired by André Thevet, the cosmographer to King Henry II of France, and Thevet included his name on several pages, including at the top of the Codex Mendoza’s frontispiece. The Codex contains a wealth of information about the Aztecs and their empire. For instance, the Codex’s frontispiece relates information about the organization and foundation of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, or the place of the prickly pear cactus. Tenochtitlan was established in the middle of Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico in Given that much of the former Aztec capital is below modern-day Mexico City, the Codex Mendoza frontispiece corroborates other information we have about the capital city and its origins. For instance, it shows us a schematic diagram of Tenochtitlan, with the city divided into four parts by intersecting blue-green undulating diagonals. The city was made of canals, similar to the Italian city of Venice, and was divided into four quarters. The image displays the quadripartite division of the city and the canals running through it. The division of the city into four parts was intended to mirror the organization of the universe, believed to be four parts aligned with the four cardinal directions (north, east, south, west). Tenochtitlan At the center of the schematic diagram of Tenochtitlan is an eagle on a cactus growing from the midst of a lake. The eagle and the cactus relate to the narrative surrounding the capital’s establishment. According to Aztec myth, their patron deity, Huitzilopochtli (Hummingbird Left), told the Aztecs’ ancestors to leave their ancestral home of Aztlan and look for a place where they saw an eagle atop a cactus growing from a rock. He informed them that when they saw this sign, they should settle and build their city. For the Aztecs, they observed the sign in the middle of Lake Texcoco, and so established their capital on an island in the lake. The cactus upon which the eagle rests also symbolizes the place name of Tenochtitlan. The cactus is a nopal, or prickly pear cactus, which in Nahuatl is nochtli. The cactus grows from a stone, or tetl. When paired together, they form te-noch to connote the place of the prickly pear cactus, or Tenochtitlan. Today’s Mexican flag similarly displays the eagle on a nopal cactus growing from a stone in the middle of a lake, relating to the mythic origins of the Mexican capital. Besides the eagle on the cactus, other figures and symbols on the frontispiece aid us in understanding the city’s foundation and early history. For instance, below the cactus and stone in the middle of the drawing is a war shield, indicating the Mexica did not settle peacefully in the Valley of Mexico. The simple structure above the eagle likely symbolizes a temple, possibly an early phase of the Templo Mayor, or the Aztec’s main temple that was located at the heart of the city in the sacred precinct. To the right of the eagle is a simplified skull rack (tzompantli), another structure found near the Templo Mayor. Different types of plants, including maize, or corn, dot the city’s four quadrants, no doubt alluding to the agricultural fertility associated with the city. Tenoch Ten men are also depicted in the four quadrants, wearing white garments and displaying top knots in their hair. These figures are the men who led the Aztecs to this island location. Their name glyphs are attached to them in a manner typical of pre-Conquest manuscripts; a thin black line connects to a symbol that denotes their name. One man, different than the rest and seated to the left of the eagle, has gray skin, as well as a different hairstyle and red mark around his ear. These traits identify him as a priest because he let blood from his ear as offerings to deities and ash covers his skin. His name glyph identities his as Tenoch. Other motifs, such as the speech scroll coming from his mouth and the woven mat upon which he sits, convey his high status as well. Tenoch died in 1363, and the first Aztec tlatoani, or speaker (the ruler), was elected in 1375 by a council of elders. Conquest Below the schematic diagram of the city are two scenes of military conquest. The artist emphasizes the military power of the Aztecs by showing two soldiers in hierarchic scale: they physically tower over the two men they defeat. The Aztec warriors are also identified by their shields—identical to the one above that is associated with Tenochtitlan—and their obsidian-bladed weapons (called macana). The defeated men come from two different locations, both identified with place glyphs as Colhuacan and Tenayuca, both located around Lake Texcoco. In this case, burning temples paired with specific hills note that Colhuacan and Tenayuca were defeated. Spanish glosses also identify these place names as “colhuacan pueblo” and “tenoyucan pueblo.” This scene of conquest alludes to early Aztec military victories, which aided them in building their power even prior to their first official tlatoani came to power. 32

22-24 EARLY EUROPE & COLONIAL AMERICA: 1541 CE Il Gesu
Early Renaissance – Baroque The Church of the Gesù is the mother church of the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic religious order also known as the Jesuits. Address: Via degli Astalli, 16, Roma, Italy Opened: 1580 The Chiesa Il Gesù (Church of the Gesù), a 16th-century late Renaissance church in Rome, is the mother church of the Society of Jesus, also known as the Jesuits. Originally very austere, Il Gesù's interior was opulently decorated starting in the 17th century. Now its frescoes, sculptures and shrines make it one of the foremost examples of Roman Baroque art. In 1540, Saint Ignatius of Loyola needed a church to serve as the center of his newly founded Society of Jesus (the Jesuits), which the Farnese-family Pope Paul III formally recognized that year. One of the Society's members was the priest of a church called Our Lady of the Way, which the Pope designated as the Society's official church. Saint Ignatius, finding the church too small, began fund-raising to construct a church worthy of the "Name of Jesus." It took him 10 years to get the necessary permits before he could break ground. But the original site wasn't ideal, so new plans were drawn up with Michelangelo being involved in the design. A second ground-breaking ceremony took place, but this time wealthy neighbors fought the construction which would affect their houses. The Pope's grandson, who was now Cardinal Farnese, agreed to fund the church and the final ground breaking took place in 1568, 18 years after the first. Unfortunately, St. Ignatius never lived to see the construction, but the church became his final resting place, making Il Gesù an important shrine for pilgrims to this day. The church also plays a pivotal role in the Counter-Reformation, which was the Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation of Martin Luther. The Counter-Reformation's goals, worked out during the Council of Trent ( ), were designed to reassert the power of the church, standardize the training of local priests, stimulate pious devotion, and wipe out the corruption in the church, which had fueled Luther's movement. The Council also issued a decree on art in response to the lush mannerist style of artists like Michelangelo, who included voluptuous nudes, commoners and pagan images in their paintings. The decree stipulated that religious art could not be designed to incite lust, be disorderly, or contain anything that was profane or unbecoming "the house of God." Importantly, the decree stipulated that subject of the work of art was what should be venerated, not the work of art itself, which would have been considered idolatry. This still allowed the church to create shrines like the tomb of St. Ignatius and the over-the-top decoration that characterizes this period, which were designed to inspire awe at the magnificence of the Catholic Church. 22-24

Donatello La Maddalena 1455 Poplar wood with polychromy and gold 6’2” (1.88 m) Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence Donatello made his harrowing Maddalena in the last decade of his life and the once beautiful Mary Magdalene he created was also at the end of hers. Her hands folded in prayer, she stands in a subtle contrapposto with her feet gripping the pedestal. Vasari describes her as “very beautiful and well executed, for she has wasted away by fasting and abstinence to such an extent that every part of her body reflects a perfect and complete understanding of human anatomy.” (Vasari, 149) She has been ravaged by time–thirty years of penitence in the wilderness–but she is not weak. Her body is sunken and cadaverous but for her muscular arms. Like many of Donatello’s subjects, she is more than just a beautiful figure; he truly created a character. Her internal drama and emotion has been drawn outward. Although she has chosen a life of penitence and suffering, one can still see the determination and defiance in her eyes. She stood this way in her home at Baptistry of San Giovanni for over 500 years, displayed on the floor at eye level. When the waters of the Arno (not to mention the heating oil from Florence’s basements) came rushing through the Baptistry that morning in November five centuries later, the Maddalena’s lower half was immersed. By the time she was rescued, she had been heavily stained with oil and her thighs were cracked in two places, as though cleaved by a hatchet. That winter two young mud angels, John Schofield, a Brit, and Bruno Santi from nearby San Niccolò, were taken to see the Maddalena by Umberto Baldini, director of the Gabinetto del Restauro. In a far wing of the Palazzo Pitti, in a far corner of a dark, unheated room, she lay there on her back like a invalid. Most of the oil appeared to have been cleaned off, but she was still cracked; white paper had been placed underneath her to catch flakes of gesso, polychrome, and splinters, and her lower half wrapped in rice paper. (Clark, ) The Maddalena’s ending is a happy one. Her restoration, performed largely by sculptor Pelligrino Banella, would not simply return her to her pre-flood condition, but reveal her true nature from underneath the residue of chemicals and paints left by seventeenth and eighteenth century restorers. Thanks to the deep cleaning, she was revealed to be a polychrome, painted with many subtle colors, instead of a monochrome. Donatello used terra-cotta and flesh tones to give her leathery tan and added gilded streaks to her hair to enhance Mary Magdalene’s red hair. As wooden figures were sometimes carried through streets in processions, the golden streaks in her hair may have been added to reflect the sunlight. (Hartt, ) It is believed that she now looks closer to her original appearance than she has in centuries. In three years, she was ready for exhibition again. She now resides in the Museo dell’Opera del Duomo. Visitors can still look her in the eyes. 21

22 EARLY EUROPE & COLONIAL AMERICA: 1508 CE Sistene Chapel – Page 593
The Flood & Exterior Sistine Chapel, papal chapel in the Vatican Palace that was erected in 1473–81 by the architect Giovanni dei Dolci for Pope Sixtus IV (hence its name). It is famous for its Renaissance frescoes by Michelangelo. The Sistine Chapel is one of the most famous painted interior spaces in the world, and virtually all of this fame comes from the breathtaking painting of its ceiling from about The chapel was built in 1479 under the direction of Pope Sixtus IV, who gave it his name (“Sistine” derives from “Sixtus”). The location of the building is very close to St. Peter’s Basilica and the Belvedere Courtyard in the Vatican. One of the functions of the space was to serve as the gathering place for cardinals of the Catholic Church to gather in order to elect a new pope. Even today, it is used for this purpose, including in the recent election of Pope Francis in March 2013. Rather than falling on his face, however, Michelangelo rose to the task to create one of the masterpieces of Western art. The ceiling program, which was probably formulated with the help of a theologian from the Vatican, is centered around several scenes from the Old Testament beginning with the Creation of the World and ending at the story of Noah and the Flood. The paintings are oriented so that to view them right-side-up, the viewer must be facing the altar on the far side of the altar wall. The sequence begins with Creation, above the altar, and progresses toward the entrance-side of the chapel on the other side of the room. 22

25 EARLY EUROPE & COLONIAL AMERICA: 1664 CE Woman Holding a Balance
Biography Johannes Vermeer (Dutch, ) The life and art of Johannes Vermeer are closely associated with the city of Delft. Vermeer was born in Delft in 1632 and lived there until his death in 1675. Vermeer's few works--they number only about thirty-five--were not well known outside of Delft, perhaps because many of them were concentrated in the collection of a patron in Delft who seems to have had a special relationship with the artist. When Vermeer died, however, he was heavily in debt, in part because his art dealing business had suffered during the difficult economic times following the French invasion of the Netherlands in the early 1670s. Vermeer was survived by his wife Catharina and eleven children, eight of whom were underage. His wife petitioned for bankruptcy the following year. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, the famed Delft microscopist who was apparently a friend of Vermeer, was named trustee for the estate Johannes Vermeer, Woman Holding a Balance, c. 1664, National Gallery of Art, Widener Collection Light flows from a window, accentuating a hand, a sleeve, a face. It washes across the wall, revealing a painting of the Last Judgment. It shimmers across gold and pearl jewelry. In the center hangs a balance, empty but for the light itself. Woman Holding a Balance embodies a spiritual principle that is often manifest in Vermeer's work: the need to lead a balanced life. Though Vermeer's working methods remain a mystery, it is clear that he constructed this composition with extreme care. Orthogonal lines to the vanishing point meet precisely at the woman's finger.The frame behind her reinforces this focus. In 1994 conservators at the National Gallery cleaned the painting, removing discolored varnish from its surface. Their work revealed that at some point in the past, the painting had been extended by a half inch on all four sides. To restore it to its original size, conservators removed the added paint. - Infrared reflectography reveals that Vermeer changed the position and increased the size of the balance In the 1660s Vermeer painted pearls in two layers: first a thin, diffused grayish glaze, followed by a thick stroke on top to create a specular highlight. He may have experimented with a camera obscura to achieve these optical effects. Other works by Vermeer also may have been enhanced by this forerunner of the modern camera. Vermeer maintained extraordinary control over his paints, working effectively with both dense impastos and thin glazes. The effect of soft light is achieved through subtle modulations in paint handling. Under high magnification, we can analyze how Vermeer represented light on different surfaces. Click on the three squares for a closer look. Vermeer's Woman with a Balance contains multiple levels of meaning. Much of its significance depends upon the emotions and experiences of the viewer. In the Last Judgment, Christ in majesty judges the souls below in this violent and fearsome final reckoning of mankind. The woman's head obscures the place where Saint Michael customarily would be weighing souls in the balance. The figure of Christ appears immediately above the woman's head, reinforcing the interpretation that her mundane act is intended to parallel the weighing of souls in The Last Judgment. While the day of judgment is violent and final, the woman seems serene and contemplative. The woman's serene expression and her blue robe recall images of the Virgin Mary. Her eyes are downcast, her gaze seems to be inward. Golden light falls on her ample belly, further emphasized by a yellow streak. Some contemporary authors speculate that the woman is pregnant, while others conclude that her costume--a short jacket, a bodice, and a thickly padded skirt--reflects a style of dress current in the early to mid-1660s. The balance traditionally symbolizes justice--after all, to judge is to weigh. With nothing in its pans, it is not quite symmetrical, yet almost at equilibrium. In an exquisite passage of visual poetry, the woman's little finger echoes the horizontal arm of the balance and picture frame. - Symbolically, pearls have been associated with vanity and worldly concerns. Titian, for example, painted Venus' hair adorned with pearls. They can also represent purity, as seen in Lorenzo Lotto's painting of Saint Catherine. In Vermeer's painting, a frame on the wall contains a mirror. Mirrors in art often symbolize vanity or self-knowledge Artists often use light to denote supernatural events and spiritual enlightenment, as seen in Titian's Saint John the Evangelist on Patmos and Sir Anthony van Dyck's The Virgin as Intercessor 25

30 LATER EUROPE & AMERICAS: 1805 CE William Blake page 785 1805
Artist William Blake 1757–1827 Title Elohim Creating Adam Date 1795–c. 1805 Medium Colour print, ink and watercolour on paper William Blake (1757–1827), one of the greatest poets in the English language, also ranks among the most original visual artists of the Romantic era. Born in London in 1757 into a working-class family with strong nonconformist religious beliefs, Blake first studied art as a boy, at the drawing academy of Henry Pars. He served a five-year apprenticeship with the commercial engraver James Basire before entering the Royal Academy Schools as an engraver at the age of twenty-two. This conventional training was tempered by private study of medieval and Renaissance art; as revealed by his early designs for Edward Young's Night Thoughts (Nature revolves, but Man advances), Blake sought to emulate the example of artists such as Raphael, Michelangelo, and Dürer in producing timeless, "Gothic" art, infused with Christian spirituality and created with poetic genius. Elohim is a Hebrew name for God. This picture illustrates the Book of Genesis: ‘And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground’. Adam is shown growing out of the earth, a piece of which Elohim holds in his left hand. For Blake the God of the Old Testament was a false god. He believed the Fall of Man took place not in the Garden of Eden, but at the time of creation shown here, when man was dragged from the spiritual realm and made material. 30

30 LATER EUROPE & AMERICAS: 1830 CE Liberty Leading the People
The Paris uprising of July 27, 28, and 29, 1830, known as the Trois Glorieuses ("Three Glorious Days"), was initiated by the liberal republicans for violation of the Constitution by the Second Restoration government. Charles X, the last Bourbon king of France, was overthrown and replaced by Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans. Delacroix, who witnessed the uprising, perceived it as a modern subject for a painting; the resulting work reflects the same romantic fervor he had applied to Massacre at Chios, a painting inspired by the Greek war of independence. The time had come to fulfill his own patriotic duty. He wrote to his nephew Charles Verninac: "Three days amid gunfire and bullets, as there was fighting all around. A simple stroller like myself ran the same risk of stopping a bullet as the impromptu heroes who advanced on the enemy with pieces of iron fixed to broom handles." Delacroix began his allegorical interpretation of the Parisian epic in September His painting was completed between October and December, and exhibited at the Salon in May 1831. A Parisian revolution The allegory of Liberty is personified by a young woman of the people wearing the Phrygian cap, her curls escaping onto her neck. Vibrant, fiery, rebellious, and victorious, she evokes the Revolution of 1789, the sans-culotte, and popular sovereignty. In her raised right hand is the red, white, and blue flag, a symbol of struggle that unfurls toward the light like a flame. Liberty wears a yellow dress reminiscent of classical drapery, held in at the waist by a belt whose ends float at her side. It has slipped below her breasts, revealing the underarm hair considered vulgar by classical artists who decreed that a goddess's skin should be smooth. The erotic realism of her nudity recalls the ancient winged victories. Her Greek profile, straight nose, generous mouth, delicate chin, and smoldering gaze are reminiscent of the woman who posed for the Women of Algiers in their Apartment. She stands noble and resolute, her body illuminated on the right, cutting a distinct figure among the men as she turns her head to spur them on to final victory. Her dark left side stands out against a plume of smoke. Her weight is on her bare left foot, visible below her dress. She may be an allegory, but this is a real battle, and she is caught up in the heat of the moment. The infantry gun with bayonet (1816 model) in her left hand gives her a contemporary look and a certain credibility. Two Parisian urchins have spontaneously joined the fight: the one on the left clings to the cobblestones, wide-eyed under his light infantry cap; the more famous figure to the right of Liberty is Gavroche, a symbol of youthful revolt against injustice and sacrifice for a noble cause. He sports the black velvet beret (or faluche) worn by students, as a symbol of rebellion, and carries an overlarge cartridge pouch slung across his shoulder. He advances right foot forward, brandishing cavalry pistols with one arm raised, a war cry on his lips as he exhorts the insurgents to fight. The fighter whose beret bears a white royalist cockade and red liberal ribbon and who carries an infantry saber (1816 model) or briquet, is recognizably a factory worker with his apron and sailor trousers. The scarf holding his pistol in place on his belly evokes the Cholet handkerchief—a rallying sign for Royalist leader Charette and the Vendeans. The kneeling figure with the top hat of a bourgeois or fashionable urbanite may be Delacroix himself, or one of his friends. He wears loose-fitting trousers and an artisan's red flannel belt, and carries a double-barreled hunting gun. The wounded man raising himself up at the sight of Liberty wears a knotted yellowish scarf, echoing the color of the heroine's dress; his peasant's smock and red flannel belt suggest the temporary workers of Paris. The blue jacket, red belt, and white shirt echo the colors of the flag. 30

30 LATER EUROPE & AMERICAS: 1862 CE
Nadar Raising Photography to the Height of Art 1862 Page 814 Although the principle of the camera was known in antiquity, the actual chemistry needed to register an image was not available until the nineteenth century. Artists from the Renaissance onwards used a camera obscura (Latin for dark chamber), or a small hole in the wall of a darkened box that would pass light through the hole and project an upside down image of whatever was outside the box. However, it was not until the invention of a light sensitive surface by Frenchman Joseph Nicéphore Niépce that the basic principle of photography was born. From this point the development of photography largely related to technological improvements in three areas, speed, resolution and permanence. The first photographs, such as Niépce’s famous View from the Window at Gras (1826) required a very slow speed (a long exposure period), in this case about 8 hours, obviously making many subjects difficult, if not impossible, to photograph. Taken using a camera obscura to expose a copper plate coated in silver and pewter, Niépce’s image looks out of an upstairs window, and part of the blurry quality is due to changing conditions during the long exposure time, causing the resolution, or clarity of the image, to be grainy and hard to read. An additional challenge was the issue of permanence, or how to successfully stop any further reaction of the light sensitive surface once the desired exposure had been achieved. Many of Niépce’s early images simply turned black over time due to continued exposure to light. This problem was largely solved in 1839 by the invention of hypo, a chemical that reversed the light sensitivity of paper. At the same time, Englishman William Henry Fox Talbot was experimenting with his what would eventually become his calotype method, patented in February Talbot’s innovations included the creation of a paper negative, and new technology that involved the transformation of the negative to a positive image, allowing for more that one copy of the picture. The remarkable detail of Talbot’s method can be see in his famous photograph, The Open Door (1844) which captures the view through a medieval-looking entrance. The texture of the rough stones surrounding the door, the vines growing up the walls and the rustic broom that leans in the doorway demonstrate the minute details captured by Talbot’s photographic improvements. The collodion method was introduced in This process involved fixing a substance known as gun cotton onto a glass plate, allowing for an even shorter exposure time (3-5 minutes), as well as a clearer image. The big disadvantage of the collodion process was that it needed to be exposed and developed while the chemical coating was still wet, meaning that photographers had to carry portable darkrooms to develop images immediately after exposure. Both the difficulties of the method and uncertain but growing status of photography were lampooned by Honoré Daumier in his Nadar Elevating Photography to the Height of Art (1862). Nadar, one of the most prominent photographers in Paris at the time, was known for capturing the first aerial photographs from the basket of a hot air balloon. Obviously, the difficulties in developing a glass negative under these circumstances must have been considerable. 30

31 LATER EUROPE & AMERICAS: 1862 CE The Burghers of Calais – page 845
Auguste Rodin Bronze The Burghers of Calais, commemorating an episode during the Hundred Years' War between England and France, is probably the best and certainly the most successful of Rodin's public monuments. Rodin closely followed the account of the French chronicler Jean Froissart (1333 or 1337–after 1400) stating that six of the principal citizens of Calais were ordered to come out of their besieged city with head and feet bare, ropes around their necks, and the keys of the town and the caste in their hands. They were brought before the English king Edward III (1312–1377), who ordered their beheading. Rodin has portrayed them at the moment of departure from their city led by Eustache de Saint-Pierre, the bearded man in the middle of the group. At his side, Jean d'Aire carries a giant-sized key. Their oversized feet are bare, many have ropes around their necks, and all are in various states of despair, expecting imminent death and unaware that their lives will ultimately be saved by the intercession of the English queen Philippa. The arrangement of the group, with its unorthodox massing and subtle internal rhythms, was not easily settled. 31

The Coiffure Mary Cassatt – page 830 Mary Cassatt (artist) American, The Coiffure, drypoint and aquatint on laid paper plate: 36.5 x 26.7 cm (14 3/8 x 10 1/2 in.) sheet: 43.2 x 30.7 cm (17 x 12 1/16 in.) In The Coiffure, Mary Cassatt depicts a young woman in a private moment, as she pins up her hair for the day. This print is part of a series of ten color prints that Cassatt exhibited at Durand Ruel's gallery in Paris in Earlier, Cassatt had seen an exhibition of Japanese woodblock prints at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and became entranced by their everyday themes and spare beauty. The Coiffure is one of two nude studies in Cassatt's color series. Although she did not often represent the nude, Cassatt's simple handling of line and form confirms her skill in drawing the human figure. The straight lines of the mirror and wall and the chair's vertical stripes contrast with the graceful curves of the woman's body. The rose and peach color scheme enhances her sinuous beauty by highlighting her delicate skin tone. Cassatt also emphasizes the nape of the woman's neck, perhaps in reference to a traditional Japanese sign of beauty. Cassatt used the theme of The Coiffure in a number of her other works, for example, her painting, Girl Arranging Her Hair, portrays a red-haired model who resembles this one in The Coiffure. 31

Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building page 850 The Sullivan Center, formerly known as the Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building or Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Store, is a commercial building at 1 South State Street at the corner of East Madison Street in Chicago, Illinois. Address: 1 S State St, Chicago, IL 60602 Area: 30,490 ft² (2,833 m²) Opened: 1899 Architectural style: Late 19th and Early 20th Century American Movements Height: 207' (63 m) CTBUH Sullivan Center was designed by renowned Chicago architect Louis Henri Sullivan and is considered to be one of the most important structures of early modern architecture in the nation. The building was constructed in 1899, designated a national and city historic landmark in 1970 and restored in phases from To the onlooker, attention is immediately drawn to the aspects which give the building its Landmark status: the cast iron ornamentation which adorns the first two floors; the horizontal effect, created by the alignment of the large "Chicago windows"; and the cylindrical main entry rotunda which rounds the corner of State and Madison Streets. The ironwork represents some of the most famous art of its kind in the world and best illustrates Sullivan's ability to transform iron into lace. In 2013 the Sullivan Center Complex participated in The Urban Land Institute’s Case Study program for Existing Buildings. To learn more about the Sullivan Center renovation and reconstruction process and the ULI case study program, 31

TOP 5 THEMATIC WORKS

2014 The creation or representation of landscape (both the natural and/or built environment) is a cultural construct. Different cultures use a variety of approaches to create or represent landscape to communicate meaning. Select and clearly identify two examples of the creation or representation of landscape, in any medium, from two different cultures. At least one of your choices must come from beyond the European tradition. Using specific evidence for each of your examples, analyze both how that landscape is created

2014 Since the 1960s many artists have investigated issues of identity in their work. Their investigations relate to larger cultural concerns. Select and clearly identify two such works made between 1960 C.E. and the present. The works must be by two different artists; the works may be in any media. Using specific evidence, analyze both how each artist investigates issues of identity in the work and how each investigation relates to larger cultural concerns.

2013 Across the world, sites and structures have been the destination of people on religious pilgrimages. Select and clearly identify two sites or structures of religious pilgrimages. Your choices must come from two different cultural traditions; at least one of your choices must come from beyond the European tradition. Using specific visual evidence, analyze how features of each site or structure shape the intended experience of the pilgrims.

2013 Throughout history, narrative has been used in art to communicate social, political, or religious meaning. Select and clearly identify two works of art that use narrative. One of your examples must date before 1800 CE., and one must date after 1800 C.E. For each work, identify the content of the narrative and analyze how the work uses narrative to communicate social, political, or religious meaning. (30 minutes)

2012 Across the world, particular materials that have cultural significance have been used to shape the meaning of works of art. Select and fully identify two specific works made from materials that have cultural significance. At least one of your choices must come from beyond the European tradition. For each work, analyze how the use of particular materials shapes the meaning (religious, social, and/or political) of the work within its cultural context.

2012 For a variety of reasons, artists throughout history have created works of art that depict domestic (household) space. Select and fully identify two works of art that depict domestic space. One of your choices must date prior to 1700 CE, and one must date after 1700 C.E. Using specific visual evidence, analyze how the depiction of domestic space in each work communicates meaning.

2011 The visual representation of deities and holy personages is a feature of religious beliefs and practices throughout the world. Select and fully identify two examples of representations of deities or holy personages, in any medium, from two different cultures. At least one of your choices must be from beyond the European tradition. Using specific visual evidence, analyze each work in relation to the religious beliefs and practices within its culture.

2011 Throughout history, art in a wide variety of media has been situated in outdoor public spaces to convey meaning to specific audiences. Select and fully identify two such works. One of your examples must date before 1850 C.E., and one must date after 1850 C.E. For each work, analyze how the work and its placement conveyed meaning to its specific audience within its outdoor public space.

2010 Artists within a culture often use depictions of ancestors, siblings, couples, or other types of family groupings to communicate larger social, political, mythical, and historical concerns. Select and fully identify two works, in any medium, that represent family groupings or relationships. The works should come from two different cultures. At least one of the two examples must be from beyond the European tradition. Discuss the specific cultural concerns the work communicates and analyze the visual means used to communicate those concerns.

2010 Throughout history, art has been used as propaganda to shape public opinion. Propaganda takes many forms, such as architecture, paintings, and print media, and is used to promote religious, political, and social ideologies. Select and fully identify two works, in any medium, that were used to shape public opinion. One of your examples must date before 1900 CE, and one must date after 1900 CE. Citing specific elements in each work, analyze how each work conveyed its propagandistic message to its intended audience.

2009 2009. Cultures designate sacred space in a variety of ways to accommodate both religious beliefs and practices. Select and fully identify two examples of sacred spaces from different cultures, one of which must be from beyond the European tradition. Discuss how each space accommodates both religious beliefs and practices within its culture.

2009 Self-portraiture provides a wide range of information about the artist in addition to physical appearance. Choose and fully identify two self-portraits, in any medium, each from a different art-historical period. Analyze how each self-portrait conveys information about the artist and his or her era.

2008 Cultural attitudes about women are often revealed in art. Select and fully identify two works of art that depict one or more women. The works must come from two different cultures, one of which must be from beyond the European tradition. Explain how each work reveals its culture’s attitudes about women.

2008 Art since the 1960s encompasses a wide variety of approaches. Address this variety of approaches through the careful choice and detailed discussion of two works of art made between 1960 and the present. The two works must be by different artists OR in different media. Be sure to fully identify each work.

36 CONTEMPORARY: 1994 CE 2014 #2 Identity 2013 #2 Narrative
2010 #2 Propaganda 2009 #1 Self Portrait 2008 #1 Women 2008 #2 Media Shirin Neshat. Rebellious Silence (1994). B&W RC print & ink, photo by Cynthia Preston Artist Statement: In , I produced my first body of work, a series of stark black-and-white photographs entitled Women of Allah, conceptual narratives on the subject of female warriors during the Iranian Islamic Revolution of On each photograph, I inscribed calligraphic Farsi text on the female body (eyes, face, hands, feet, and chest); the text is poetry by contemporary Iranian women poets who had written on the subject of martyrdom and the role of women in the Revolution. As the artist, I took on the role of performer, posing for the photographs. These photographs became iconic portraits of willfully armed Muslim women. Yet every image, every women’s submissive gaze, suggests a far more complex and paradoxical reality behind the surface. Biography: Shirin Neshat (born 1957, Qazvin), who lives and works in New York City, left Iran in 1974 to study in Los Angeles. She stayed in California, receiving her BFA and MFA at the University of California, Berkeley. She then moved to New York, where she married the Korean art curator Kyong Park; the two jointly ran the New York exhibition and performance space the Storefront for Art and Architecture. Neshat returned to Iran in 1990, eleven years after the Islamic Revolution, and was shocked by what she saw. That trip led to her first body of work, the photographic series Women of Allah, consisting of conceptual narratives on the subject of female warriors during the Revolution. Neshat works in photography, video, film, and performance, often addressing the theme of the alienation of women in repressed Muslim societies. Shirin Neshat is a photographer and a film director who works in the United States. However, her artwork reflects the Islamic society, primarily in Iran, where she was born. Her focus lies on the Islamic culture and tradition, especially on women in Islamic culture (Carnegie Museum of Art , Par 1). Due to her explicit attacks on sexual, political, and religious issues in Iran, she cannot work in her birth nation (Collins, Par 1). She questions the position of women in Islamic culture and the fight between the tradition and the revolution. Her works ask questions instead of answering them. In Rebellious Silence,we have a woman, covered in a veil, holding a gun. Her face is covered with writing; the writing on her face makes her seem as if she is wearing a niqāb (KNEE-KAAB). Niqāb is one of the more extreme veils women must wear, showing obedience to the male supremacy in Islamic culture. The woman looks as if she’s ready to fight. She looks determined, staring straight at the camera. The origin of the musket is unclear, but its presence implies that she is going to war, ready to fight. Neshat’s works depict women in the Iran-Iraq War, responding to the violent war at that time (Metropolitan Museum of Art, Par 1). Although her works are based on women’s position during the war, her feminist actions also imply that these women are ready to fight for their right in the conservative world of Islam. Although women took part in the Iran-Iraq War, they are still mistreated in both countries; Neshat, like previous artists, raises the question of who the war is fought for. The woman in the picture raises the question of what she’s fighting for—is it for herself or for the benefits of others? Shirin Neshat. Rebellious Silence (1994). B&W RC print & ink, photo by Cynthia Preston 36

2013 #1 Sacred Space 2013#2 Narrative 2011 #1 Holy person
2010 #1 Family 2009 #2 Sacred Space Uses a CENTRAL PLAN Especially known for it’s mosaics and it’s famous apes mosaics of Justinian and Theodora Ravenna enjoyed its greatest cultural and economic prosperity during Justinian's reign. Dedicated by Bishop Maximanus in 547, Julianus Argentarius provided the funding of 26,000 gold soldidi (weighing 350 lbs) The church is an unforgettable experience for all who have entered it and marveled at its intricate design and magnificent golden mosaics. Figure Aerial view of San Vitale (looking northwest), Ravenna, Italy, 526–547. 43 43

2012 #1 Domestic Space 2012 #1 Materials
Neoclassicism had a great impact on other European countries and the United States as well. Those virtues of patriotism, idealism and service became principle components in the work of Thomas Jefferson. In his estate, Monticello (29-28), this classical style of architecture came to fit Jefferson's intellectual needs. The balance and symmetry, which are hallmarks of the classical as well as the neoclassical, are seen in Jefferson's home. Jefferson admired Palladio immensely and read the Italians’ Four Books of Architecture. Later, while the minister to France, Jefferson studied the century classical architecture and city planning and visited the Maison Caree. Due to this new knowledge Jefferson completely remodeled Monticello, which he had first designed in an English Georgian style. The final version of Monticello is somewhat reminiscent of the Villa Rotonda and of Chiswick House, but its materials are local wood and brick used in Virginia. Figure THOMAS JEFFERSON, Monticello, Charlottesville, United States, 1770–1806.

2014 #1 Landscape 2011 #2Outdoor Space
SITE SPECIFIC ART 2. On May 7, 1983, the installation of Surrounded Islands was completed in Biscayne Bay, between the city of Miami, North Miami, the Village of Miami Shores and Miami Beach. Eleven of the islands situated in the area of Bakers Haulover Cut, Broad Causeway, 79th Street Causeway, Julia Tuttle Causeway, and Venetian Causeway were surrounded with 6.5 million square feet (603,870 square meters) of floating pink woven polypropylene fabric covering the surface of the water and extending out 200 feet (61 meters) from each island into the bay. The fabric was sewn into 79 patterns to follow the contours of the 11 islands. For two weeks, Surrounded Islands, spreading over 7 miles (11.3 kilometers), was seen, approached and enjoyed by the public, from the causeways, the land, the water and the air. The luminous pink color of the shiny fabric was in harmony with the tropical vegetation of the uninhabited verdant islands, the light of the Miami sky and the colors of the shallow waters of Biscayne Bay. Since April 1981, attorneys Joseph Z. Fleming, Joseph W. Landers, marine biologist Anitra Thorhaug, ornithologists Oscar Owre and Meri Cummings, mammal expert Daniel Odell, marine engineer John Michel, four consulting engineers, and builder-contractor, Ted Dougherty of A and H Builders, Inc. had been working on the preparation of the Surrounded Islands. The marine and land crews picked up debris from the eleven islands, putting refuse in bags and carting it away after they had removed some forty tons of varied garbage that included refrigerator doors, tires, kitchen sinks, mattresses and an abandoned boat. Permits were obtained from the following governmental agencies: The Governor of Florida and the Cabinet; the Dade County Commission; the Department of Environmental Regulation; the City of Miami Commission; the City of North Miami; the Village of Miami Shores; the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; the Dade County Department of Environmental Resources Management. The outer edge of the floating fabric was attached to a 12 inch (30.5 centimeter) diameter octagonal boom, in sections, of the same color as the fabric. The boom was connected to the radial anchor lines which extended from the anchors at the island to the 610 specially made anchors, spaced at 50 foot (15.2 meter) intervals, 250 feet (76.2 meters) beyond the perimeter of each island, driven into the limestone at the bottom of the bay. Earth anchors were driven into the land, near the foot of the trees, to secure the inland edge of the fabric, covering the surface of the beach and disappearing under the vegetation. The floating rafts of fabric and booms, varying from 12 to 22 feet (3.7 to 6.7 meters) in width and from 400 to 600 feet (122 to 183 meters) in length were towed through the bay to each island. There were eleven islands, but on two occasions, two islands were surrounded together as one configuration. As with Christo and Jeanne-Claude's previous art projects, Surrounded Islands was entirely financed by the artists, through the sale of preparatory drawings, collages, and early works. The artists do not accept sponsorship of any kind. On May 4, 1983, out of a total work force of 430, the unfurling crew began to blossom the pink fabric. Surrounded Islands was tended day and night by 120 monitors in inflatable boats. Surrounded Islands was a work of art underlining the various elements and ways in which the people of Miami live, between land and water. 2014 #1 Landscape 2011 #2Outdoor Space Site-specific art is artwork created to exist in a certain place. Typically, the artist takes the location into account while planning and creating the artwork. Figure CHRISTO and JEAN-CLAUDE, Surrounded Islands, , MIAMI

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